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HAND-BOOK 



CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY, CHRONOLOGY, 



MYTHOLOGY, AND ANTIQUITIES. 



PREPARED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS, 



T. P. ALLEN and W. F. ALLEN. 



BOSTON: 

SWAN, BREWER, AND TILESTON 

131 Washington Street. 

1 8 G 1. 






Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1861, by 

T. P. ALLEN AND W. F. ALLEN, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. 



V I 



£ s 






University Press, Cambridge : 
Stereotyped and Printed by Welch, Bigelow, & Co. 



PREFACE 



This work was undertaken in order to meet the want, 
which we had long felt, of a series of lessons in Ancient 
Geography, which should contain whatever was absolutely 
essential to the student, and no more. We have gradually 
enlarged our plan so as to comprise Chronology, Mythology, 
and Antiquities, always aiming to avoid the extremes of 
over-fulness and meagreness. Some portions, it will be 
seen at once, are designed only for reference. The geo- 
graphical lessons contain also brief historical sketches, suf- 
ficient, we believe, to show the connection of each state 
with Universal History. They may be used with any good 
set of maps ; — the references are to Long's, but there are 
a few names that will not be found in his Atlas. 

In preparing this, we have of course made constant use 
of Smith's series of Dictionaries, and the Oxford Chrono- 
logical Tables ; but in all cases of doubt we have had re- 
course to the best and latest authorities within our reach. 
Our chief authority in Geography has been Kiepert ; in 
Chronology, Grote and Mommsen ; in Literature, Bern- 
hardy ; in Mythology, Preller ; in Greek Antiquities, Grote 
and K. F. Hermann ; in Roman Antiquities, Becker, Mar- 
quardt, and Mommsen. We would also express our great 
indebtedness to Professor Goodwin of Harvard College, who 
has kindly looked over the proof-sheets, and made many 
valuable suggestions. 



ABBKEVIATIONS. 



M. Mountain. 

G. Gulf. ■ 

Str. Straits. 

K. King. 

d. died. 



R. River. 
Pr. Promontory. 
S. Sea. 
Cf. compare. 
m. married. 



L. Za/ce. 

Id. Island. 

C. Cape, 

b. 6om. 

da. daughter. 



*^* Modern geographical names are in italics, 
indicates a battle. 



The dagger (t) 



CONTENTS. 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

PAGE 

I. Northern Coast of Africa 7 

II. Egypt and ^Ethiopia 8 

III. Arabia, Babylonia, Assyria, Armenia, etc. ... 8 

IV. Media, Ariana, Scythia, etc 9 

V. Palestine, Phoenicia, Syria 10 

VI. -VIII Asia Minor 11 

IX. Islands in the iEgean Sea 13 

X. Thrace, Macedonia, Epirus 13 

XI. -XIV. Greece 14 

XV. Islands West of Greece 17 

XVI. Sarmatia, Dacia, Illyrfcum, etc. . . . .. .18 

XVII. Germany, Britain 18 

XVIII. Gaul 19 

XIX. Spain 20 

XX. -XXIII. Italy 20 

XXIV. Rome 23 

The Roman Provinces arranged Chronologically . . . .24 

ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY. 

I. Oriental Period . . .27 

II. Grecian Period 30 

III. Roman Period 34 

IV. Roman Empire 38 

Outlines of Ancient Chronology, by Centuries . . . . 42 



vi CONTENTS. 

MYTHOLOGY. 

Grecian Mythology. 

1. Theogony 45 

I. Olympian Gods. 

2. Zeus 45 

3. Hera 46 

4. Hephsestus 46 

5. Athena, or Pallas 46 

6. Apollo, or Phoebus. — Phaethon, Hyacinthus, Daphne . 46 

7. Artemis. — Endymion. — Hecate 46 

8. Ares 47 

9. Aphrodite. — Adonis, Eros, Psyche 47 

10. Hermes 47 

11. Hestia 47 

Lesser Deities of Heaven. 

12. Iris, Hebe, Nike 47 

13. The Hours, Astrsea 47 

14. The Graces .' . . . 48 

15. The Muses 48 

16. Asclepios. — Hygiea, Ilithyia 48 

17. The Fates, Nemesis 48 

18. Mollis, Eos 48 

19. Momus, Morpheus, Plutus, Hymen 48 

II. Marine Gods. 

20. Poseidon. — Amphitrite, Triton, Polyphemus . . .49 

21. Proteus, Glaucus 49 

22. Nereus, The Nereids 49 

23. Ino (Leucothea). — Melicertes (Palsemon) ... 49 

24. The Sirens. — Scylla and Charybdis . . . . .49 

III. Clithonian Gods. 

25. Cybele. — The Curetes and Corybantes . . . .50 

26. Dionysus or Bacchus. — Ariadne, The Thiasos (Pan, Priapus, 

Satyrs, Sileni, Centaurs, Nymphs, etc.), Narcissus, Echo . 50 

27. Demeter. — Proserpine, Triptolemus . . . . 51 

28. The Cabiri 51 



CONTENTS. vii 

IV. The Lower Regions. 

29. Pluto 51 

30. The Rivers of Hades. — Cerberus, Charon ... 51 

31. The Judges of Hades. — Tantalus, Ixion, etc. . . .51 

32. The Furies 52 

V. Heroes and Demigods. 

33. Prometheus, Epimetheus, Pandora 52 

34. Deucalion, Pyrrha, Hellen 52 

35. Orpheus, Eurydice .53 

36. Argos. — Io, Danaus, Perseus 53 

37. Heracles 53 

Thebes. — Cadmus, Eurdpa, OEdipus, Antigone . . 54 
Athens. — Cecrops, Philomela, Theseus . . . .55 

Sparta. — The Dioscuri 55 

Tantalus, Pelops, Atreus, Niobe 55 

Marriage of Peleus and Thetis 56 

Trojan War 56 

JEneas, Ulysses, Agamemnon 57 

Argonautic Expedition. — Jason, Medea . . . .58 

The Amazons. — Hippolyte 58 

Meleager . . .58 

Bellerophon. — The Chimaera .59 

Admetus. — Alcestis 59 

The Lapithae 59 

Amphion and Zethus. — Dirce 59 

Atalanta 59 

Daedalus 59 

Marsyas 59 

Roman Mythology. 

55. Janus 60 

56. Jupiter. — Spolia Oplma 60 

Mars. — Bellona. — Ver Sacrum 60 

Quirinus 60 

Juno. — Luclna 60 

Minerva 61 

Diana 61 

Neptune. — Consus 61 

Vulcan or Mulciber 61 



vm CONTENTS. 

64. Liber Pater 61 

65. Ceres 61 

66. Mercury, Terminus 61 

67. Venus 61 

68. Vesta. — Vestal Virgins 61 

69. The Penates, Genius 61 

70. Saturn, Ops 62 

71. Vejovis, Diespiter ......... 62 

72. Mater Matuta, Bona Dea, Aurora 62 

73. Apollo Soranus, Dius Fidius 62 

74. Pales, Picus, Faunus, Silvanus, etc 62 

75. Orcus, Dis Pater. — Manes, Lares, Lemures, Parcas . . 62 

76. Dii Indigetes 63 

77. Pavor and Pallor, Libertas, Fors Fortuna, etc. . . .63 

78. Juno Sosplta 63 

79. Apollo. — Sibyls 63 

80. Cybele or Idtea Mater . . . . . . . 63 

81. iEsculapius 63 

82. Hercules, Castor and Pollux 63 

83. Bacchus 64 

84. Isis, Serapis, Mithras 64 

Egyptian Mythology. 

85. Ammon 65 

86. Osiris. — Isis, Typhon, Apis 65 

87. Horus, Harpocrates, Anubis ....*. 65 

88. Phthah, Neith, Bubastis, Thoth, etc 65 



ANTIQUITIES. 

Grecian Antiquities. 

I. Athens. 

89. Early Institutions. — Tribes, Phratria?, Gentes . . .69 

90. Institutions. — Trittycs and Naucraries .... 69 

91. Reform of Solon. — Timocracy, Classes . . . .69 

92. Reform of Clisthenes. — Ten Tribes, Demes ... 70 

93. Metics, Slaves, etc. 70 

94. Archons 70 



CONTENTS. ix 

95. Ephetse 71 

96. Senate of Areopagus 71 

97. Dicasteries. — Helioea 72 

98. 99. Senate of Five Hundred. — Prytanes, Proedri . . 72 

100. Assembly. — Ostracism 73 

101. Nomothetae, Nomophylaces 74 

102. Later Changes. — Four Hundred, Thirty . . . .74 

103. Liturgies. — Choregia, Trierarchy . . . . . 75 

104. Finances . . .75 

II. Sparta. 

105. Spartans, Periceci, Helots. — Syssitia 76 

106. Kings 76 

107. Ephors 76 

108. Council 76 

109. Assembly 77 

110. Education 77 

111. . . . III. Amphictyonic Council . . . .77 

IV. Games and Festivals. 
National. 

112. Olympic Games. — Pentathlon 78 

113. Pythian Games 78 

114. Nemean Games . . 78 

115. Isthmian Games 79 

Local. 

116. Athenian Festivals 79 

117. Other Parts of Greece 79 

118 V. Colonies 80 

VI. Military. 

119. Athenian 81 

120. Spartan 81 

121. Macedonian Phalanx 81 

Roman Antiquities. 
I. Divisions of the People. 

122. Patricians, Plebeians, Quirites, Populus . . . .82 

123. Patrician Tribes, Curia? 82 

1* 



x CONTENTS. 

124. Thirty-five Tribes 82 

125. Reform of Servius Tullius. — Classes, Centuries . . 82 

126. New Aristocracy, Equestrian Order 83 

127. Gentes. — Names 83 

128. Patron, Clients, Libertini, etc 83 

129 II. Magistrates .... 84 

1. Greater Magistrates. 

130. Consuls. — Interrex, Proconsul, Lictors . . . .85 

131. Praetors 85 

132. Censors 85 

133. Dictator. — Magister Equitum 86 

2. Lesser Magistrates. 

134. jEdiles 86 

135. Quasstors 86 

136. Tribunes of the People. — Viators .... 86 

137. Triumviri Capitales, Apparitores . . . . . 87 

3. The Empire. 

138. PrEefectus Urbi, Prasfectus Prastorii . . ' . . .87 

III. Assemblies. 

139. Senate 87 

140. Comitia Curiata, Comitia Calata 88 

141. Comitia Centuriata 88 

142. Comitia Tributa 89 

IV. Priesthoods. 

1. The Great Colleges. 

143. Pontifices 89 

144. Epulones 89 

145. Decemviri sacris faciundis 90 

146. Augurs. — Haruspices 90 

2. The Patrician Colleges. 

147. Rex Sacrificulus .90 

148. Elamens 90 

149. Salii. — Ancilia 90 

150. Fetiales. — Pater Patratus 91 



CONTENTS. xi 

"V. Colonies, etc. 

151. Soman Colonies 91 

152. Latin Colonies 91 

153. Municipia, Praefectura, etc 91 

154. Provinces. — Senatorial and Imperial .... 91 

VI. Military Affairs. 
1. Before Marius. 

155. The Legion. — Hastati, Principes, Triarii, Velites . . 92 

156. Maniples, Centuries, Turmaa 92 

157. Armor 93 

2. Reform of Marius. 

158. The Cohort 93 

159. Praetorian Cohort 93 

160. The Camp ...... ... 93 

160£. Triumph, Ovation 9-1 

VII. Law. 

161. Civitas. — Caput 94 

162. Provocatio, Appellatio 95 

163. Laws of the Twelve Tables 95 

164. Matrimonium — Confarreatio, Usus, Coemptio. — Manus 95 

165. Patria Potestas 95 

166. Mancipatio . 96 

167. Nexum, Addictus, Mutuum 96 

168. Agrarian Laws 96 

169. Sumptuary Laws 97 

170. Parricidium, Proclitio, Perduellio 97 

171. Courts. — QuEestiones Perpetuas, Centumviri, etc. . . 97 

172. Revenue. — Tributum 97 

VIII. Festivals. 

173. Ferias Stativas 98 

174. Feriae Conceptlvee 99 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

175. 176. The Ship 100 

177. The House 100 



X.U CONTENTS. 

178, 179. The Temple . . . . . . . .101 

180. The Theatre 102 

181. The Amphitheatre 103 

182. The Plough 103 

183-185. Dress 103 

TABLES. 

186, 187. Measures of Length 105 

188, 189. Measures of Surface . . . . " . . 106 

190, 191. Measures of Capacity 107 

192-194. Weights 107 

195. Money 108 

196, 197. Grecian Money 109 

198-200. Roman Money . 109 

201-204. Grecian Time Ill 

205 - 209. Roman Time 112 

210. Dies Fasti, Comitiales, etc 114 

211. The Winds ... 115 

212. Roman Praenomens 115 

GENEALOGIES. 

213. Family of Acrisius 116 

214. Family of Tantalus 116 

215. Family of JEacus 116 

216. Family of Deucalion 117 

217. Family of Dardanus 117 

218. Kings of Persia 117 

219. Alcnueonidae 118 

220. Family of Miltiades 118 

221. Spartan Kings 118 

222. Families of Antigonus and Antiochus . . . . 119 

223. The Maccabees and Herods 120 

224. Families of L. iEmilius Paulus and Scipio . . . 121 

225. TheMetelli 122 

226. The Carbos 122 

227. The Scaevolas 123 

228. Family of Augustus 123 



ANCIENT. GEOGRAPHY. 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 



I. 

Northern Coast of Africa. (Map 23.) 

Mauretania. Ruled by Bocchus in alliance with Rome, 
and afterwards by Juba II. Made into two Roman prov- 
inces, Tingitana, Morocco, and Caesariensis, Algiers, 
by Claudius. Conquered by the Vandals under Genseric, 

A. D. 429. — M. Atlas. — R. Multicha. — Fretum Ga- 
ditanum, Strait of Gibraltar. — Columns of Hercules. — 
Masssesylii. 

Nlimidia, part of Algiers. Famous for its cavalry. 
Under K. Masinissa, 2d cent. B. C, in close alliance 
with Rome. His grandson, Jugurtha, vanquished by 
Marius, B. C. 106. Made a Roman province by Caligu- 
la. — Cirta. — Massylii. 

Africa, Tunis. Originally subject to Carthage, a colony 
of Tyre. Made a Roman province by Scipio JEmilianus, 

B. C. 146. — Carthage. Utica. Zama.f Thapsus.f 
Regio Syrtica or Tripolitana, Tripoli. — Leptis Magna. — 

Greater and Lesser Syrtis. 
GsBtulia. Libya. 
Cyrfinaica, Barca. — A Greek colony, ruled for two cen- 



8 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

turies by the dynasty of the Battiada?, then a republic 
(about B. C. 450). Afterwards a dependency of Egypt. 
United with Crete to form a Roman province. — Cyrene. 



II. 

Egypt. (Maps 25 and 3.) 

The narrow valley of the R. Nile, which at its mouth 
divides and forms the Delta. The monarchy was founded 
at a very remote era. Conquered by Cambyses of Persia, 
B. C. 525. After the death of Alexander, Egypt was 
ruled by the Greek dynasty of the Ptolemies. Made a 
Roman province by Augustus, B. C. 30. 

Upper, or Thebais, — Thebes, or Diospolis Magna. Syene. 
Abydus, or This. Berenice. — Id. Elephantine. Philae. 

Middle, or Ileptanomis. Memphis. Heracleopolis. Arsinoe 
or Crocodilopolis. Hermopolis. — L. Moeris. — Pyramids. 

Lower. — Alexandria. Naucratis. Sa'is. Pelusium.t 
Heliopolis. — Arabian G., Red Sea. 



Ethiopia, Nubia. Probably a colony of Egypt. — 
Meroe. 

III. 

(Maps 3 and 22.) 

Arabia. (Petrsea. Deserta. Felix.) Made a Roman 
province by Trajan. — Petra. — Persian G. 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 9 

Babylonia. Empire founded by Nabopolassar, B. C. 625 ; 
overthrown by Cyrus, B. C. 538. — Babylon. Seleucia. 
Cunaxa.t — R- Tigris. Euphrates. 

Assyria. Empire established in the 13th cent. B. C. ; 
overthrown by Cyaxares of Media, and Nabopolassar, 
B. C. 625. — Nineveh. ArDela. Gaugamela.f 

Mesopotamia. O s r h o e n e . — Edessa. Carrh^.f 

Armenia. Ruled by the native dynasty of the Arsacidse 
from the 2d cent. B. C. until A. D. 428. — Tigranocerta. 
M. Ar'arat. Taurus. — R. Araxes. — Sophene. 

Colchis. — M. Caucasus. R. Phasis. 

Iberia. Albania. R. Cyrus. 

IV. 

(Maps 22, 3, and 2.) 

Media. Revolted from Assyria, 7th cent. B. C. — M. 
Zagros. Orontes. — Caspian Sea. — Atropatene, Azer- 
bijan. — Susiana. Susa. — R. Choaspes. — Ecbatana. 

Persis. Revolted under Cyrus, and conquered Media 
(B. C. 559). — Persepolis. Pasargadse. 

Ariana, Afghanistan and Beloochistan. Parthia. The 
Empire of the Arsacidse, founded in the 3d cent. B. C. 
Overthrown by Artaxerxes, or Ardishir, who founded the 
new Persian monarchy of the Sassanidae, A. D. 226. — M. 
Paropamisus, Hindoo Koosli. Car mania. Gedrosia. 

Bactriana. Sogdiana. Margiana. Hyrcania. 

Scytllia, Independent Tartary. — M. Imaus, Beloortayh. — 
R. Oxus. Jaxartes. — Oxian Sea, S. of Aral. 



10 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY. 

India, — M. Emodi, Himalaya. — R. Indus. Hydaspes, 
Jeloom. Hyphasis, Sutledge. Ganges. 



(Maps 21 and 20.) 

Palestine. The kingdom of Solomon was divided, 10th 
cent. B. C, into those of Judah and Israel. The king- 
dom of Israel conquered by Assyria, B. C. 721 ; Judah 
by Babylon, B. C. 568. Afterwards subject to Syria ; 
conquered by Pompey, B. C. 63, and finally by Titus, 
A. D. 70. 

Galilee. — Nazareth. — L. Tiberias. 

Samaria. — Sychem. — R. Jordan. — M. Carmel. 

Judaea. — Jerusalem. Bethlehem. — L. Asphaltltes, 
Dead Sea. 

Peraaa. 

Phoenicia. Of early commercial importance. Dependent 
on Persia, afterwards subject to Syria. — Tyre. Sidon. 
Ptolemais, Acre. 

Syria. Conquered by Assyria. After Alexander, an 
independent Greek kingdom under the Seleucidas ; made 
a Roman province by Pompey, B. C. 64. — Antioch. 
Seleucia. Palmyra or Tadmor. Heliopolis, Baalbec. Da- 
mascus. Thapsacus. — R. Orontes. — M. Libanus. Anti- 
libanus. — C oe 1 e s y r i a . C o m m a g e n e . Made a Roman 
province by Vespasian. 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 11 

VI. 

Asia Minor I. (Map 20.) 

Mostly subject to Lydia, then to Persia, 6th cent. 
B. C; after the overthrow of the Persian empire, divided 
into numerous states. 

PontUS. A powerful kingdom. Mithridates VI. carried 
on war with Rome, B. C. 88-63, until subdued by Pom- 
pey. Partly united with the Roman province Bithynia ; 
the rest made a province, Pontus Polemoniacus, 
by Nero. — Zela.f — R. Thermodon. Halys. — Pontus 
Euxinus, Black Sea. 

Paplllagonia. Subject to Pontus. 

Bithynia. Ruled by native kings ; made a Roman prov- 
ince, B. C. 74. — Nicomedia. Nicaea, Nice. — R. San- 
garius. Thracian Bosporus, Strait of Constantinople. 

Galatia. Colonized by Gauls, about B. C. 200 ; made 
a Roman province by Augustus. 

Cappadocia. Ruled by kings generally in alliance with 
Rome ; made a Roman province, with Lycaonia, by Ti- 
berius. — Armenia Minor. 

Lycaonia. Iconium, Konieh. Lystra. — Isauria. 

VII. 

Asia Minor II. (Maps 20 and 19.) 

Cilicia. Infested by pirates ; made a Roman province 
by Pompey, B. C. 64. — Soli or Pompeiopolis. Tarsus. 
Issus.f — R. Cydnus. Pyramus. 



12 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

Cyprus. An island, subject to Egypt under the Ptole- 
mies ; made a Roman province by Augustus. — Paphos. 

— M. Olympus. 

Pamphylia. Made a Roman province, with Lycia, by 
Augustus. — R. Eurymedon.f P i s i d i a . 

Lycia. — M. Climax. — R. Xanthus. 

Caria. Belonged to Roman province of Asia. — R. 
Maeander. 

Lydia. A powerful kingdom, comprising most of Asia 
Minor ; conquered by Cyrus, B. C. 546. After Alex- 
ander, subject first to Syria, then to Pergamum. After- 
wards part of the Roman province of Asia. — Sardes. 

— M. Tmolus. — R. Cayster. Hermus. Pactolus. — 
Pr. Mycale.f 

Phrygia. — Ipsus.f 

VIII. 

Asia Minor III. (Map 19.) 

Mysia. Belonged to the kingdom of Pergamum, after- 
wards to Rome (province of Asia). — Ilium. — M. Ida. 

— R. Granicus.f Scamander. — Propontis, S. of Marmora. 
Hellespont, Dardanelles. JEge'an Sea, Archipelago. 

Pergamum. A kingdom founded by Eumenes in the 3d 
cent. B. C, closely allied with Rome, and embracing most of 
the western part of Asia Minor. Attalus III. bequeathed 
his dominions to Rome, B. C. 133, which were formed 
into the province of Asia, B. C. 129. 

Greek Colonies. Doris. — Halicarnassus. Cnidus-t — 
Ionia. — Magnesia on Moeander. Miletus. Ephesus. 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 13 

Smyrna. Phocaea. Magnesia near Sipylus.f — .ZEolis. — 
Adramy ttium. — On the Northern Coast. — Abydus. 
Lampsacus. Cyzicus. Calchedon. Heraclea. Sin ope. 
Cerasus. Trapezus, Trebizond. 

IX. 

Islands in the JEgean. (Map 19.) 

Thracian, Icarian, Myrtoan, Cretan, Carpathian S. 

Thasos. Samothrace. Imbros. Lemnos. Tenedos. 
Scyros. 

Belonging to JEolis. — Lesbos, Mytilene. 

Belonging to Ionia. — Chios. Samos. Lade.f 

Belonging to Doris. — Cos. Rhodes. Carpathus. 

Cyclades, — Delos, M. Cynthus. Andros. Paros. 
Naxos. Melos. 

Sporades, — Thera. Patmos. 

Crete. Famous for its archers. Made a Roman province 
with Cyrene, B. C. 67. — Cnossus. — M. Ida. Dicte. 

EllbOBa, Negropont. — Chalcis. Eretria. — Pr. Arte- 
misium.f — Euripus. 

-^gina. Salamis.f Cythera. 

X. 

(Maps 14 and 15.) 

Thrace, Rumilia. Made into a kingdom by Lysima- 
chus, after Alexander's death ; afterwards annexed to 
Macedonia. Made a Roman province by Claudius. — Ly- 
simachia. Abdera. Byzantium. Sestus. -3ilgospotami.t 



14 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

— M. Haemus. Rhodope. — R. Hebrus. — Thracian 
Chersonesus. 

Macedonia. At the height of its power under Alexan- 
der, B. C. 330. Conquered (under K. Perseus) by L. 
JEmilius Paulus; — made a Roman province, B. C. 146. 

— Pella. Pydna.f Thessalonica, Salloniki. Olynthus. 
Amphipolis. Philippi.f — M. Athos. Olympus. Cam- 
bunii. Pindus. — R. Strymon. — Thermaic, Strymon'ic 
G. — Chalcidice. Paeonia. Pieria. 

Epil'US, Albania. Flourished under K. Pyrrhus, about 
B. C. 300. Made a part of the Roman province Achaia ; 
in 2d cent. A. D. became an independent province. — 
Ambracia. Dodona. — M. Ceraunii. — R. Acheron. Co- 
cytus. Arachthus. — Pr. Acroceraunium. — Chaonia. 
Molossia. Thesprotia. Athamania. Dolopia. 



XI. 

Greece I. Hellas. (Maps 15 and 16.) 

Made a Roman province, Achaia, B. C. 146, by L. 
Mummius. 

Thessaly. The tyrants of Pherae held great power early 
in the 4th cent. B. C. Made part of the Roman province 
of Macedonia. — Larissa. Pharsalus.f Cynoscephalre.f 
Demetrias. Pheraa. — M. Othrys. (Eta. Ossa. Pelion. 
— R. Peneus. Sperchius. — Pagassean, Malian, G. — ■ 
Vale of Tempe. — Magnesia. Perrhcebia. 

Acamania. — R. Achelous. — Pr. Actium.f 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 15 

Jltolia. Of little political importance until the forma- 
tion of the iEtolian League, 3d cent. B. C. — Calydon. 
■ — R. Evenus. — Pr. Antirrhium. 

Doris. 

Locris. Opuntii. Epicnemidii. Ozolse. — Nau- 
pactus. Thermopylse.f 

PhOCiS, — Delphi. M. Parnassus. 

Boeotia. A confederacy under the presidency of 
Thebes, whose power was at its height about B. C. 370. 

— Thebes. Orchomenus. Platasa-f Leuctra.f Coro- 
nea.f Chasronea.t Aulis. — M. Helicon. Cithaeron. 

— R. Cephissus. — L. Copais. 

XII. 

Greece II. Attica. (Maps 16 and 17.) 

The territory of Athens, which was the leading state of 
Greece, about B. C. 450. — Eleusis. Marathon.! Phyle. 
Piraeus. Munychia. Phalerum. Decelea. Brauron. — 
M. Parnes. Pentelicon or Brilessus. Hymettus. Lau- 
rium. iEgaleos. — R. Cephissus. Ilissus. — Pr. Sunium. 

— Saronic G. — Pedion. Paralia. Mesogsea. 
Diacria. Thriasian Plain. 

Athens. — Acropolis. (Propylcea. Parthenon. Erech- 
theum. Athena Promachos.) — Areopagus. (Mars Hill.) 
Pnyx. Museum. — Theatre of Dionysus. Agora. The- 
seum (Temple of Theseus). Olympieum (Temple of 
Jupiter Olympius). — Ceramicus. Academy. Lyceum. 
Stadium. M. Lycabettus. 



16 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

XIII. 

Greece III. Isthmus and Peloponnesus. (Map 18.) 

Megai'is. — Megara. Nisaea. — M. Geranea. 
Corillthia. — Corinth. — Acrocorintlius. 

Sicyonia. — Sicyon. 
Phliasia. — Phlius. 

Al'golis. Consisting of cities over which Argos had a 
nominal supremacy. — Argos. Mycenae. Tiryns. Ne- 
mea. Epidaurus. Troezen. — R. Inachus. — Id. Calauria. 

— Pr. Scyllaeum. — Argolic G. 

Acliaia. Of little political importance until the formation 
of the Achaean League, comprising all the Peloponne- 
sus except Elis, 3d cent. B. C. — iEgium. Patrae. — Pr. 
Rhium. — Corinthian G. 

Elis. Important from its presidency over the Olympic 
Games. Generally allied with Sparta ; afterwards belonged 
to the iEtolian League. — Elis. Pisa. Olympia. Pylos. 

— R. Peneus. — Triphylia. 

XIV. 

Greece IV. Peloponnesus. 

Arcadia. Disunited states, without a head until the 
building of Megalopolis by Epaminondas, about B. C. 370. 

— Mantinea.t Tegea. Orchomenos. Megalopolis. Phi- 
galia. — M. Erymanthus. Cyllene. Lycaeus. Maenalus. 

— R. Alpheus. — L. Stymphalis. 

Messeilia. Conquered by Sparta, 8th cent. B. C. ; restored 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 17 

to independence by Epaminondas. — Messene. Pylos. 
Ithome. Stenyclarus. — R. Pamisus. — Pr. Acritas, C. 
Gallo. — Id. Sphacteria.f — Messenian G. 

Lacoilia. The territory of the kingdom of Sparta, which 
had the hegem'ony about B. C. 400. Ruled by the tyrant 
Nabis, about B. C. 200 ; afterwards joined the Achaean 
League. — Sparta. Amyclce. Sellasia.f — M. Taygetus. 
Parnon. — R. Eurotas. — Pr. Malea, C. St. Angelo. Tae- 
narum, C. Matapan. — Laconic G. 



XV. 

Islands West of Greece. (Maps 15, 12, 9, and 4.) 

In the Ionian Sea. — Zacynthos, Zante. Cephallenia. 
Ithaca. Leucas, Santa Maura. Corcyra, Corfu. — Stro- 
phades Ids. 

Sicily. Colonized by the Greeks, and long contended for 
between Syracuse and Carthage. Made the first Roman 
province after the first Punic "War, B. C. 241. — Syracuse-! 
Messana. Himera.f Agrigentum. Panormus. Selinus. — 
M. iEtna. Eryx. — Pr. Pelorum. Pachynum. Lilyba3um. 

Sardinia. — Made a Roman province, together with Cor- 
sica, B. C. 238. 

Corsica. Ilva, Elba. Melita, Malta. Liparian Ids. 
.iEgates Ids.f Pityusas Ids. 

Baleares Ids. — Famous for slingers. Conquered by 
Rome, B. C. 123. 



18 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

XVI. 

(Maps 2, 3, 14, and 25.) 

Sai'lliatia, Russia, fyc. — R. Tanais, Don. Rha, Volga. Bo- 
rysthenes, Dnieper. — Palus Moeotis, Sea of Azof. — Tau- 
ric Chersonesus, Crimea. — Cimmerian Bosporus, Sir. of 
JEnikdle. 

Kingdom of Bosporus. — A Greek kingdom winch 
flourished several centuries ; the chief granary of Greece. — 
Panticapasum. 

Dacia, WallacMa. Made a Roman province by Trajan. — 
R. Tibiscus, Theiss. Tyras, Dniester. Danubius or Ister. 

MffiSia, Bulgaria. 

Paillionia, part of Hungary, Sclavonia, &c. — Vindobo- 
na, Vienna. — R. Dravus. Savus. 

Noricum, Austria, Styria, Carinthia, &c. — Noric Alps. 

RlltEtia, Tyrol. — Rhaetian Alps. — L. Yenetus, or Bri- 
gantlnus, Constance. — Vindelicia, Bavaria. Augusta 
Vindelicorum, Augsburg. 

* # * The last four were made Roman provinces by Augustus. 

Illyricum. A chief seat of pirates. Made a Roman 
province, 2d cent. B. C. — Scodra. Epidamnus or Dyr- 
rhachium. — Liburnia. Dalmatia. — Mare Adriaticum 
or Superum. 

XVII. 

(Maps 25 and 5.) 

Gcrmailia. Inhabited by wild and independent tribes, 
whom the Romans never wholly subdued. Two prov- 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 19 

inces, Upper and Lower, erected on the Rhine by 
Augustus. — Hercynian M. — R. Vistula. Viadus, Oder. 
Albis, Elbe. Rhenus, Rhine. — Saltus Teutoburgensis.f — 
Cimbric Chersonesus, Jutland. — In g a3.v ones. Istaevo- 
nes. Hermiones. — Boii. Suevi. Cherusci. 

Britannia or Britain. First invaded by Julius Cassar, 
B. C. 55 ; conquered .by Agricola, A. D. 84 ; abandoned 
by the Romans, A. D. 410. — Londinium. Yerulamium, 
St. Albans. Eboracum, York. — R. Tamesis, TJiames. Sa- 
brina, Severn. Abus, Humber. — Pr. Cantium, N. Fore- 
land. — Walls of Hadrian and Severus. — Id. Orcades, 
Orkney. Mona, Man. Mona, Anglesea. Hibernia, Ire- 
land. — Fretum Gallicum, Str. of Dover. — Oceanus Ger- 
manicus. — Trinob antes, Essex. Brigantes, York. 
Iceni, Norfolk and Suffolk. Silures, S. Wales. 

XVIII. 

Gallia or Gaul. (Map 6.) 

The southern part was made a Roman province, Nar- 
bonensis, 2d cent. B. C. ; the rest was divided by Au- 
gustus, after the conquest by Cresar, into three provinces, 
Aquitania, Lugdunensis, Belgica. 

Lugdunum, Lyons. Massilia, Marseilles. Narbo, Nar- 
bonne. Aquse Sexti£e,f Aix. Tolosa, Toulouse. Lutetia, 
Paris. Colonia Agripplna, Cologne. Nemausus, Nismes. 

M. Jura. Vosegus, Vosges. Cebenna, Cevennes. 

R. Mosella, Moselle. Mosa, Meuse. Scaldis, Scheldt. 
Sequana, Seine. Matrona, Marne. Liger, Loire. Ga- 
rumna, Garonne. Rhodanus, Rhone. Arar, Saone. 



20 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. 

L. Lemanus, Geneva. 

Armonca, Brittany and Normandy. — Allobroges, 
Viennois. Arverni, Auvergne. iEdui, Burgundy. 
Helvetii, Switzerland. Sequani, Franche Comte. 
Be mi, Champagne. Nervii, Flanders. 

XIX. 

Hispania. (Map 7.) 

Conquered by the Romans from the Carthaginians, and 
made into two provinces, Citerior or Tarraconensis, 
and Ulterior or Baetica, B. C. 205. Lusitania, 
Portugal, made a province by Augustus. 

Tarraco, Tarragona. Saguntum. Carthago Nova, Car- 
tagena. Numantia. Gades, Cadiz. Munda.f Corduba, 
Cordova. 

M. Pyrena^i. 

R. Iberus, Ebro. Durius, Douro. Tagus. Anas, Gua- 
diana. Baetis, Guadalquivir. 

Cantabri. Celtiberi. Ilergetes. Turdetani. 

Oceanus Cantabricus, B. of Biscay. Mare Atlanticum. 
Mare Internum, Mediterranean S. 

XX. 

Italy I. (Map 8.) 

Liglirift. — Graian Alps. — Sinus Ligusticus, G. of Genoa. 
— Alpes Maritime made a Roman province by Au- 
gustus, Alpes Cottice by Nero, Alpes Pennine later. 

Gallia Cisalpina, Lombardy, Emilia, fyc. Made into a 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 21 

Roman province [ace. to Momrasen] by Sulla. Mediola- 
num, Milan. Placentia, Piacenza. Brixia, Brescia. Cre- 
mona. Mantua. Mutina, Modena. Bononia, Bologna. 
Ravenna. Vercellae.f (Campi Raudii.) — Lepontine 
Alps. — R. Padus, Po. Ticinus,t Ticino. Trebia.t 
Athesis, Ad'ige. Rubicon. — L. Verbanus, Maggiore. 
Larius, Como. Benacus, Garda. — Lingones. Ceno- 
mani. Insiibres. Boii. Sen ones. — Via ^Emilia. 
Venetla. — Verona. Patavium, Padua. Adria. Aqui- 
leia. — Carnic, Julian Alps. — Tergestmus Sinus, G. of 
Trieste. — I s t r i a . 

XXI. 

Italy II. (Maps 8 and 9.) 

Etl'liria, Tuscany, <fyc. A confederacy of twelve aristo- 
cratic cities ; at the height of its power about B. C. 
500. Afterwards subdued by Rome. — Pisa?. Fa3suke,f 
Fiesole. Florentia, Florence. Arretium, Arezzo. Cortona. 
Perusia, Perugia. Clusium, Chiusi. Falerii, Civita Castel- 
lana. Veii. Tarquinii. Agylla or Casre. — M. Apenninus. 
Soracte. — R. Arnus. Tiber. — L. Trasimenus-t Vulsi- 
niensis. — Via Flaminia. Cassia. Aurelia. 

Umbria. — Ariminum, Rimini. Sentinum.f Spoletium, 
Spoleto. — R. Metaurus.f Nar. 

Picenum. — Ancona. Hadria. 

Sabinum. The tribes contended with Rome in the So- 
cial War, B. C. 90. — Reate. Amiternum. Cures. Fidena 3 . 
Corfinium or Italia. Alba Fucensis. — M. Lucretilis. 
Sacer. — R. Allia.f — L. Fucinus. — Marsi. Pceligni. 
Vestini. Marrucini. 



22 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 

XXII. 

Italy III. (Maps 9 and 11.) 

Latilim, A confederacy of thirty towns, with Alba Longa 
at the head. Rome supplanted Alba Longa, and obtained 
the mastery over Latium, 4th cent. B. C. — Rome. 
Ostia. Laurentum. Ardea. Antium. Anxur or Tarra- 
cina. Corioli. Alba Longa. Gabii. Lanuvium. Aricia. 
Tusculum, Frascdti. Prosneste, Palestrina. Tibur, Twoli. 
Formiae, Mola di Gdeta. Anagnia. Fregellce. — M. Albanus. 
— R. Liris, Gariglidno. Anio. Trerus. — L. Albanus. 
Regillus.f — Pr. Circeium. — Mulvian Bridget — Via 
Appia. Latina. Valeria. — iEqui. Volsci. Hernici. 

Samnium. Waged war with Rome for more than fifty 
years in the 4th and 3d centuries B. C. — Bovianum. 
Beneventum.f — M. Taburnus. — R. Tifernus.-. — Caudine 
Porks.f — Frentani. Pentri. Hirplni. 

Apulia. Mostly pasture lands. — Cannae. f Brundusium. 
Luceria. Canusium. — M. Garganus. — R. Aufidus. — Pr. 
Japygium. — Daunia. Calabria. 



XXIII. 

Italy IV. (Map 9.) 

Campania, — Capua. Cumne. Baia3. Puteoli, Pozzuoli. 
Neapolis or Parthenope. Herculaneum. Pompeii. Nola. 
Teanum. — M. Massicus. Tifata. Gaurus.f Vesuvius. — 
R. Vulturnus. — L. Avernus. Lucrinus. — Pr. Misenum. 
— Ager Falernus. — Mare Tyiwhenum or Inferum. — 
Id. iEnaria or Pithecusa, Ischia. Caprece, Capri. 



ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 23 

Lucailia. Colonized by Sabines. — Potentia. — Sinus Ta- 
rentimis. 

Bruttiuni. A mixed people, made up of Lucanians, QEno- 
trians, and revolted slaves. — Pr. Lacinium. Leucopetra. 
Zephyrium. 

Magna Grsecia. (Greek Colonies.) — Tarentum. Me- 
tapontum. Heraclea. Sybaris. Thurii. Croton. Locri 
Epizephyrii. Rhegium, Reggio. Paestum. Velia or Elea. 

XXIV. 

Rome. (Map 10.) 

Seven Hills. — Palatums. Capitolinus. Quirinalis. Vimi- 
nalis. Esquiljnus. Caslius. Aventlnus. — M. Janiculum. 

Foi'lim — Romanum. Boarium. Trajani. 

Cil'CUS — Maximus. Flaminius. 

Baths — of Titus, Caracalla, Diocletian. 

Temple — of Jupiter Capitolinus. Jupiter Stator. Sat- 
urn. Peace. Concord. Vesta. Castor and Pollux. 
Venus and Rome. — Pantheon. 

Arcll — of Drusus, Titus, Septimius Severus, Constantino. 

Column — of Trajan, M. Aurelius. 

Porta — Capena. Collin a. f Carmentalis. 

Campus Martius. Ager Vaticanus. Prata Quinctia. 
Suburra. Velia. Arx. Tarpeian Rock. Agger. Tiber 
Island. Via Sacra. Clivus Capitolinus. Vicus Tuscus. 

Colosseum or Flavian Amphitheatre. Mausoleum of 
Hadrian, Castle St. Angelo. Theatre of Marcellus. Subli- 
cian Bridge. Claudian Aqueduct. Curia. Comitium. Ta- 
bularium. Mamertine Prison. Basilica of Constantine. 



THE ROMAN PROVINCES 



ARRANGED CHRONOLOGICALLY. 



*^* The Senatorial Provinces are distinguished by the asterisk 
the rest are Imperial. (§ 154.) (Map 4.) 





TO THE EEIGN OF 


Augustus. 


B.C. 




B. C. 




241. 


Sicilia.* 


30. 


^Egyptus. 


238. 


Sardinia. 


29. 


Moesia. 


205. 


Hispania Citerior. 


27. 


Aquitania. 


205. 


" Ulterior.* 


27. 


Lugdunensis. 


167. 


Illyricum (Dalmatia). 


27. 


Belgica. 


146. 


Macedonia.* 


27? 


Lusitania. 


146. 


Achaia.* 


27? 


Germania Superior. 


146. 


Africa.* 


27' 


Germania Inferior. 


129. 


Asia* 


27. 


Cyprus.* 


120. 


Gallia Narbonensis.* 


25. 


Galatia. 


82? 


Gallia Cisalplna (until 43). 


25. 


PamphyliaetLycia (A.D.43). 


74. 


Bithynia.* 


15. 


Rhaetia. 


74. 


Cyrene et Creta (67).* 


15. 


Noricum. 


64. 


Cilicia. 


14. 


Alpes Maritimse. 


64. 


Syria. A D. 8. 


Pannonia. 




After Augustus. 


A. D. 




A.D. 




17. 


Cappadocia. 


63, 


Pontus Polemoniaeus. 


39. 


Numidia. 


73. 


Commagene. 


42. 


Mauretania Tingitiina. 


— . 


Epirus (by Trajan). 


42. 


Mauretania Cassariensis. 


105. 


Arabia. 


43. 


Britannia. 


106. 


Dacia. 


46. 


Thracia. 


— . 


Alpes Pennlnse (before Au- 


— • 


Alpes Cottiae (by Nero). 




relian). 



Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria were made provinces by 
Trajan, but immediately given up. 



ANCIENT CIIEONOLOGY. 



In these tables, those nations which successively held the chief 
place in the world's history are taken in turn as representatives 
each of its period, the dates of primary importance being indicated 
by full-faced type, and the contemporary events of other countries by 
italics. In this way synchronism is preserved, without the confusion 
of parallel columns, and, above all, prominence is given to what 
properly belongs to Universal History, and to the course of empire. 
There are in strictness three such periods, — Oriental, Grecian, and 
Roman, — but for convenience' sake the Roman Empire is consid- 
ered as a fourth. Grote has been the authority in Grecian dates, 
Mommsen in Roman, Bunsen in Egyptian ; in other cases we 
have followed the best authorities within our reach. The dagger . 
( f ) indicates a battle. 

On the opposite pages are placed the names of Avriters, artists, 
&c, as nearly as possible opposite the period at which they flour- 
ished. The letter L. signifies Latin writers ; Ch., Christian fathers. 



I. 

ORIENTAL PERIOD, 

Extending to about B. C. 500, and comprising in succession the 
Egyptian, Assyrian, Ninevite, Babylonian, and Per- 
sian Empires. In this period the Greek states were wholly dis- 
united politically, Sparta being the most powerful. The Roman 
monarchy falls entirely within this period. 

EGYPTIAN EMPIRE. 
B.C. 

3619. Mencs, the first king. 

Fourth Dynasty in Memphis. (Pyramids.) 

Twelfth Dynasty in Diospolis, or Thebes. (Lake Maris.) 

Hycsos or Shepherd Kings. 

[Chaldsean Empire in Babylon.] 
1625. Eighteenth Dynasty in Thebes. — 1540. Thothmes III. 
1409. Nineteenth Dynasty. Rameses II. (Sesostris). Height of 

Egyptian power. 
1314. Exodus of the Israelites under Moses. (K. Menephthah.) 

1273. ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. 

[Kingdoms of Jerusalem, Tyre, and Damascus.] 
1184. Troy taken by the Greeks, after a siege of ten years. 
1 104. Return of the Heraclldce. — Doric Kingdoms in the Peloponnesus. 

985. Revolt of the Ten Tribes. — Kingdoms of Israel and Judah. 

817. Legislation of Lycurgus in Sparta. 

David, the Hebrew psalmist, lived in the 11th cent.; Homer is 
sometimes placed as early, by Grote as late as 850; Hesiod lived 
not far from 800 ; also the prophet Joel. 



28 ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY. 

776. First Olympiad. Commencement of Greek Chronology. 

753. Assumed date of the building of Rome. Roman Chronology. 

747. Era of Nabonassar. — Assyrian Empire of Nineveh. 

743. First Messenian War; — conquest of Messenia by Sparta. 

721. Samaria taken by the Assyrians. (K. Sargon.) 

664. Twenty-sixth Egyptian Dynasty., founded by Psammetichus. 

648. Second Messenian War. (Aristomehes.) 
[Kingdoms of Media and Lydia.] 

625. Nineveh destroyed by Medes and Babylonians. 

" EMPIRE OF BABYLON. 1 

624. Legislation of Draco in Athens. 

594. Legislation of Solon in Athens. Timocracy established (§ 91). 

586. Jerusalem taken by Nebuchadnezzar, K. of Babylon. 

560. Tyranny of Pisistratus in Athens. 

559, PERSIAN EMPIRE. 

546. Conquest of Lydia (K. Croesus) by Cyrus, K. of Persia. 

538. Babylon taken by Cyrus. 

536. Return of the Jews from captivity [70 } r ears] in Babylon. 

525. Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses. Pelusium.f 

510. The Pisistratidos expelled from Athens. Democracy estab- 
lished by Clisthenes (§92). 

509. Expulsion of the Tarquins by Brutus. Roman Republic. 



LITERATURE AND ART. 29 

The Israelite prophets, Amos and Hosea. 



The Hebrew prophets, Isaiah and Micak. 

The Iambic poets : Archilochus of Paros, and Simonides of Amor- 
gos. — The Elegiac poets : Calllnus of Ephesus, and Tyrtaeus 
(2d Messenian War). — Terpander of Lesbos, inventor of the 
seven-stringed lyre. — Alcman of Sardes, c h o r i c poet. 

The Hebrew prophets, Nahum and Zephaniah. 

Epimenldes, the Cretan philosopher. 

Avion of Lesbos, inventor of the Dithyramb. — Lyric poets: 
Alcaeus and Sappho of Lesbos, and Stesichdrus of Him era. — 
Mimnermus of Colophon. — jEsop the fabulist. 

The Hebrew prophets, Habaklcuk, Jeremiah, Obadiah, and Ezekiel. 

Poets : Anacreon of Teos, Theognis of Megara, Hipponax of Ephesus. 

535. First representation of Tragedy by Thespis. 
Greek Philosophy. 

Anaximander of Miletus, of the Ionic School. 

Xenophanes of Colophon, founder of the Eleatic School. 

Pythagoras of Samos, founder of the Pythagorean School. 



THE SEVEN WISE MEN OF GREECE. 
About B. C. 600. — Solon of Athens, Thales of Miletus (founder of 
the Ionic School of philosophy), Pittdcus of Mytilene, Bias of 
Priene, Cleobulus of Lindus, Myson of Chenre, and Chilon of Spar- 
ta. — Some lists contained Periander of Corinth instead of Myson. 



30 ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY. 

II. 

GRE CIAN PERIOD. 

From about B. C. 500 to 300; the Hegem'ony or leadership 
successively held by Athens, Sparta, Thebes, and Macedo- 
nia. During this period the Persian empire continued in the East, 
constantly waning in power until overthrown by Alexander. Eoman 
history is divided into two lesser periods : — 1. The struggles between 
the Patricians and Plebeians, terminated by the Licinian Laws. 2. The 
conquest of Italy, completed in the battle of Sentinum. 

502. Ionic Revolt from Persia. Suppressed at Id. Lade,t 496. 
498. L. Regilhtsj Independence of the Roman Republic established. 
494. First Secession of the Plebs to the Sacred Mount. 
490. Invasion of Greece by Darius. Marathon.f (Miltiades.) , 
480. Invasion by Xerxes. Thermopylae.! — Artemisium.t 
" Salamis'.t Naval victory of Themistocles. 
" Himera.t Carthaginians defeated by Gelon. 
479. Plataea.f (Aristldes and Fausanias.) — Mycalet (same day). 

Career of Themistocles (d. about 449). 
476. Confederacy of Delos. — Athenian hegemony. 
467. Revolt of Naxos from Athens. 
466. R. Eurymedon.t Defeat of the Persians by Cimon. 
464. Revolt of the Messenians from Sparta : subdued, 455. 
Wars of Rome with the JEquians and Volscians. 
Athenian Empire. 
451. Legislation of the Decemvirs in Rome. 
446. Coronea.t The Athenians defeated by the Boeotians. 
Age of Pericles (d. 429). 
431. Peloponnesian War, between Athens and Sparta, — ends 404. 
425. Id. Sphacteria.t Victory of the Athenians under Cleon. 



LITERATURE AND ART. 31 



HeracUtus of Ephesus the " Weeping Philosopher." 

Simonides of Ceos, Lyric Poet. 556 - 469. 
Aeschylus, Tragic Poet, 525-456. [First Victory, 484.] 
Pindar, the greatest of lyric poets, d. 442. 

Anaxagoras of Clazomense, founder of the Attic School of Philoso- 
phy- 
Sophocles, Tragic Poet, 495-406. [Victory over iEschylus, 468.] 
Euripides, last of the three great Tragic Poets, 480-406. 
Empedocles of Agrigentum, statesman and philosopher. 
Herodotus of Halicarnassus, " Father of History," d. 484. 



Polygnotus of Thasos, painter. 

Phidias, the greatest of sculptors. 

Ictinus, architect of the Parthenon [finished 438]. 

Sculptors : Pohjcletus, founder of the Argive School, and Myron. 



32 ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY. 

421. Fifty years' truce agreed upon — broken, 415. 

415. Disastrous Athenian expedition to Syracuse.! (Nicias.) 
Career of Alcibiades. 

406. Dionysius the Elder, Tyrant at Syracuse. 

4:05. Aegospotami.j (Lysander.) — Spartan hegemony. 

403. Athenian independence re-established by Thrasybulus. 

401. Expedition [Anabasis] of Cyrus the Younger. — Cunaxa.f 

396. Veii taken by Camillus, after a siege of ten years. 

394. Cnidus.f Naval power of Sparta destroyed by Conon. 

" Coronea.f The Boeotians defeated by Agesilaus, K. of Sparta 

390. R. Allia.-\ Capture of Rome by the Gauls. 

387. Peace of Antalcidas between Greece and Persia. 

371. Leuctra.f Spartan power broken. — Theban hegemony. 

Career of Epaminondas. 

367. Licinian laws in Rome. Equality of the orders. 

364. Pelopidas of Thebes slain in battle with Alexander of Pherse. 

362. Mantinea.f Death of Epaminondas. 

355. Phocian or Sacred War, until 346. 

Career of Demosthenes (d. 322). 

348. Olynthus taken by Philip of Macedon. 

344. Timoleon becomes master of Syracuse, d. 336. 

First Samnite War. — 343. Mt. Gaurusj — Latin War. 

338. Chaeroneaf (Philip). — Macedonian hegemony. 

334. Expedition of Alexander. — E. Granlcus.i 

333. Issus.f — 332. Capture of Tyre. 

331. Gaugamela (Arbela).f Overthrow of the Persian Empire. 

MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. 

323. Death of Alexander : dismemberment of the Empire. 

Second Samnite War. — 321. Caudine Forksj 
301. Ipsus.t Overthrow of the Asiatic kingdom of Antigonus. 
[Kingdoms of Macedonia, Syria, and Egypt.] 

Third Samnite War. 295. Sentlnum.-\ 290. Peace. 
[Kise of the Achaean and iEtolian Leagues.] 



LITERATURE AND ART. 33 

Apollodorus of Athens, founder of a school of painting. 
Thucydides, the greatest of ancient historians, b. 471. 
Zeuxis and Parrhasius, painters. 
Socrates, the philosopher ; condemned to death 399, set 70. 

Aristophanes, the comic poet ; about 444 - 380. 
Lysias, the Athenian orator, 458-378. 

Democrttus of Abdcra, the "Laughing Philosopher," 460-357. . 
Plato, founder of the Academic School of Philosophy, \. 430. « 
Hippocrates, founder of the science of medicine, d. 357. 
Ardislhenes, founder of the Cynic School of Philosophy. 
Later Attic school of sculpture : Scopas and Praxiteles. 
Xenophon the historian, d. 359. 
Isocrates, founder of a school of oratory, 436 - 338. 
Aristotle, founder of the Peripatetic School of Philosophy, 384 - 322. 
Orations of Demosthenes (b. 385): — 351, 1st Philippic. 349, Olyn- 
thiacs. 346, On the Peace. 343, 2d Philippic. 341, 3d Philippic. 
Apelles of Cos, the painter. 

Lysippus of Sicyon, sculptor of the school of Polyclctus. 
Diogenes, the Cynic Philosopher, d. 323. 
JEschtnes, the orator, 389-314. 

Menander, the most distinguished poet of the New Comedy, 6. 342. 
330. Oration of Demosthenes on the Crown. 
Euclid, the mathematician, d. 283. 
Theophrastus, pupil of Aristotle, 374-287. 

Schools of Philo sophy . 
Pyrrho, founder of the Sceptic School, d. 288. 
Zeno, founder of the Stoic School, d. 263. 
Epicurus, founder of the Epicurean School, d. 270. 
Arcesildus, founder of the Middle Academy. 



34 ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY. 

III. 

ROMAN PERIOD. 

From about B. C. 300 to the Christian Era : divided into the pe- 
riods of Foreign Wars and Civil Dissensions. 

In the East the Diadochi, or Successors of Alexander, and the Par- 
thian Empire. In Greece an attempt at confederation, in the ^Etolian 
and Achaean leagues, then conquest by Rome. 

PERIOD OF FOREIGN WARS. 
Invasion of Italy by Pyrrhus ; 275, defeated at Beneventum.f 
264. First Punic War — For the possession of Sicily. 

260. Naval victory of Duilius, near Messana. 

255. Defeat and captivity of Regulus. 

241. Id. ^Egates.t Victory of Catulus. — Peace made. 
[Parthian Empire and Kingdom of Pergamum.] 

222. Sellasia.i Supremacy of the Achozan League in the Peloponnesus. 
219. Siege of Saguntum, by Hannibal. — Second Funic War. 

218. Victories of Hannibal at R. Ticinusf and R. Trebia.f 

217. L. Trasimenus.f — 216. Cannae.f 

212. Syracuse taken by Marcellus. Death of Archimedes. 

207. R. Metaurusf Defeat of Hasdrubal by Livius and Nero. 
202. Zama.f Defeat of Hannibal by Scipio Afrieanus. Peace. 

197. Cynoscephalse.t Defeat of Philip of Macedon by Flamininns. 

190. Magnesia.! Defeat of Antiochus of Syria by Scipio Asiaticus. 

183. Death of Scipio African us, Hannibal, and Philopcemen. 

168. Pydnat Defeat of Perseus of Mace'don by L. iEmilius Pau- 
lus. End of Third Macedonian War. 

149. Revolt of Viriathns in Spain. 
146. Corinth taken by Mummius, Carthage by Scipio Aemilianus. 



LITERATURE AND ART. 35 



Alexandrian School 
of Literature, under the patronage of Ptolemy Philadelphia. 
Aristarckus of Samos, astronomer. 
Lycophron, grammarian and poet, famed for obscurity. 
Theocritus of Syracuse, and Bion of Smyrna, pastoral poets. 
Manetho, the Egyptian historian. 

Callimachus, the greatest of the Alexandrian poets, d. abt. 240. 
240. First play exhibited at -Rome by Livius Andronlcus. L. 
Archimedes of Syracuse, mechanical philosopher, 287-212. 
Eratosthenes, the first mathematical geographer, 276 -abt. 196. 
Moschus of Syracuse, pastoral poet. 
Cn. Ncevius, the earliest native Roman poet. L. 
Aristarchus of Alexandria, critic and grammarian. 
Plautus, the earliest Roman comedian, d. 184. L. 
Ennius, epic and tragic poet, a Greek by birth, 239 -abt. 167. L. 
Q. Fabius Pictor, the earliest Roman historian, wrote in Greek. 
Apollonius Rhodius, Alexandrian poet, b. abt. 235. 
M. Porcius Cato Major, the Censor ; historian, abt. 234-149. L. 
Cameades, founder of the New Academy, abt. 213 - 129. 
Pacuvhis and Attius, tragedians. 

Terence, the Roman comedian, b. at Carthage, 195. L. 
Hipparchus of Alexandria, the greatest of ancient astronomers. 
Polybius, the Greek historian of Rome, abt. 204- 122. 



36 ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY. 



PERIOD OF CIVIL DISSENSIONS. 

133. Legislation of Ti. Gracchus. — Numantia taken by Scipio. 

132. Servile insurrection in Sicily (headed by Eunus) suppressed. 

121. Legislation and death of C. Gracchus. Aristocratic reaction. 

106. War with Jugurtha finished by Marius. 

102. Aqua? Sextiae.f Teutones defeated by Marius. 

101. Campi Raudii.f Cimbri defeated by Marius. 

100. End of second servile war in Sicily. (Athenion.) 

90. Social or Marsic War. Ended, 88. 

88. Civil War between Marius and Sulla. 

" War against Mithridates in Asia (Sulla) : ended, 63. 

87. Victory of Marius and Cinna. — Massacre of the party of Sulla. ■ 

82. Colline Gate.f — Dictatorship and legislation of Sulla. 

78. Death of Sulla. — Civil War between Cattilus and Lepidus. 

" Sertorius continues the war in Spain : murdered, 72. 

73. Insurrection of Spartacus ; suppressed, 71, by Crassus. 

" Lucullus conducts the Mithridatic War successfully. 

67. Pompey subdues the pirates, and takes command against Mith- 
ridates. — 63. Death of Mithridates. 

63. Cicero consul. — Conspiracy of Catiline. 

60. First Triumvirate, of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus. 

58. Caesar takes command in Gaul ; completes its conquest, 51. 

53. Carrhas.f Crassus defeated and killed by the Parthians. 

49. Civil War between Caesar and Pompey. 

48. Pharsalus.t Pompey defeated, and afterwards murdered. 

47. Zela.f Defeat of Pharnaces. " Veni, vidi, vici." 

46. Thapsus.f Defeat of Pompey's party. Cato the Younger 
kills himself at Utica. 

45. Munda.t The sons of Pompey defeated by Ccesar. 

44. Assassination of Caesar, by Brutus and Cassius. 

43. Second Triumvirate, of Octavianus, Antony, and Lepidus. 

42. Philippi.f Brutus and Cassius defeated by the Triumvirs. 

31. Actium.f Antony defeated by Octavianus. 



LITERATURE AND ART. 37 



Lucilius, founder of Roman satire, d. 103. L. 



L. Crassus, b. 140 : M. Antonius, b. 143, distinguished orators. L, 



81. Earliest extant Oration of Cicero, Pro Quinctio. 
Q. Hortensius, orator, rival of Cicero, b. 114. L. 

M. Tullius Cicero, 106 - 43. L. 

70. Orations of Cicero, In Verrem ; 66, Pro Lege Manilla, and Pro Clu- 

entio, 
T. Lucretius Cams, philosophical poet, 95 - abt. 52. L. 
Q. Roscius, the great comic actor, d. 62. L. 

63. Orations, De Lege Agraria, In Catilinam, Pro Murena, &c. L. 
M. Terentius Varro, writer on Agriculture and Antiquities, 116-28. L. 
Catullus, lyric poet, 6. 87. L. 
52. Oration of Cicero, Pro Milone. L. 
C. Sallustius Crispus, the historian, 86 - 34. L. 
C. Julius Csesar, historian and orator, 100-44. L. 

Orations of Cicero : 47, Pro Marcello ; 46, Pro Ligario ; 45, Pro Deio- 
tdro. 

44. First two Philippics of Cicero against Mark Antony. 
43. Twelve Philippics of Cicero against Antony. 

Verrius Flaccus, antiquarian. — Trogus Pompeius, historian. 



38 ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY. 

IV. 

ROMAN EMPIRE. 

From near the Christian era, lasting about 500 years. In the East 
the Parthian empire, until overthrown by the new Persian empire. 

B.C. 30. Octavianus Augustus. First Roman Emperor — Second 
Caesar. 

12. Death of Agrippa, chief minister of Augustus. 

9. Saltus Teutoburgensis.f Varus defeated by Arminius. 

a.d.14. Tiberius. — 19. Death of Germanicus in Syria. 

31. Execution of Sejanus, the Emperor's favorite. 

37. Caligula. 

41. Claudius. — 50. Invasion of Britain (Caractiicus). 

54. Nero. — Last Emperor of the Claudian House. 

61. Insurrection in Britain (Boadicea). 

64. Fire in Rome. Persecution of the Christians. 

68. Galba. — 69. Otho. — Vitellius. 

69. Vespasian. — Flavian House, of three Emperors. 
70. Jerusalem taken by Titus, after siege of five months. 

78. Agricola takes the command in Britain. .Recalled, 85. 

79. Titus. — Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii. 
81. Domitian. — Last of the Twelve Cassars. 
96. Nerva. — First of the Five Good Emperors. 

98. Trajan. — The Roman Empire at its height. 

106. Dacia made a Roman province. 

117. Hadrian. — A patron of the arts. 

138. Antoninus Pius. 

161. Marcus Aurelius, the Philosopher. 

180. Commodus. — The Empire ruled by the Praetorian Guard. 

193. Pertinax. — Didius Julianus. 

" Septimius Severus. — House of the Severi. 



LITERATURE AND ART. 39 



Augustan or Golden Age of Roman Literature. — C. Cilnius 
Maecenas, (/. 8., eet. abt. 60. 

Latin Poets— Epic, Virgil, 70 - 1 9. — Lyric and Satiric, Horace, 
65-8. — Elegiac, Tibullus, b. abt. 54; Propcrtius, b. abt. 57. — 
Ovid, 43 - A. D. 18. — Historians — Livy, 59 - A. D. 17.— 
Cornelius Nepos. 

Greek Historians — Dionysius Halicarnassensis ; d. abt. B. C. 7 : 
Diodorus Siculus. — Strabo, geographer. 

Philo the Jew, the Alexandrian Platonist. 

Celsus, medical writer. L. — Valerius Maxlmus and Velleius Paterculus, 
historians. L. 

Columella, on Agriculture. L. — Vitruvius, on Architecture. L. 

Lucan, epic poet, author of Pharsalia, 39 - 65. L. 

Seneca, moral philosopher and tragedian, d. 65. L. 

Persius, the satirist, 34 - 62. L. — Phaedrus, the fabulist (uncertain). L. 

Silius Italicus, epic poet, author of Punica, 25-100. L. 

Q. Curtius, life of Alexander, time unknown. L. 

Pliny the Elder, naturalist, 23 - 79. L. 

Epic Poets— Valerius Flaccus, d. 88. — Statius, abt. 61 - 96. L. 

Flavius Josephus, the Jewish historian. 37 -abt. 100. 

Quintilian, the rhetorician, abt. 40-118. — Frontlnus, d abt. 106. L. 

Juvenal the satirist. L. — Martial the epigrammatist, 43 -abt. 104. L. 

Ignatius, of Antioch, martyred abt. 107. Ch. 

Tacitus, the historian. L. — Pliny the Younger, b. abt. 61. L. 

Plutarch and Suetonius (L.), biographers. — Pausanias, the traveller. — 
Ptolemy, the geographer. — Lucian, the Satirist. — Fronto, ora- 
tor. L. 

Justin Martyr. Ch. — Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna. Ch. 

Appuleius, author of " The Golden Ass."— Gaius, jurist. L. 

Irenmus, Bishop of Lyons. Ch. — Marcion, a heretic. Ch. 

Galen, medical writer, d. about 200. L. — Athenazus. 



40 ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY. 

211. Caracalla. — 218. Elagabalus. 

222. Alexander Severus, murdered by MaximInus. 

226. Parthian Empire overtltrown. New Persian Empire of the Sas- 
sanXdm. 
Invasions of the Empire by Goths, Franks, &c. 

260. The Emperor Valerian made prisoner by Sapor of Persia. 

The Thirty Ty rants — rebels in various parts of the Empire. 

273. Palmyra (Q. Zenobia) taken by Aurelian. 

284. Diocletian. — 303. Tenth Persecution of the Christians. 
306. Constantine. 

312. Mulvian Bridge t Authority of Constantine established. 
Christianity made the State Religion. 

325. First General Council of the Church at Nicaea (Nice). 

330. Constantinople made the capital of the Empire. 

361. Julian the Apostate. 

379. Theodosius the Great. 

395. Division of the Empire : the East under Arcadius ; the West 

under Honorius. 
410. Rome sacked by Al'aric the Visigoth. 

" Britain abandoned by the Romans. 

415. Visigothic Kingdom in Spain founded by Ataulphus. 

429. Vandal Kingdom of Gen'seric in North Africa. 

449. Britain conquered by the Anglo-Saxons. 

451. "Battle of the Peoples." — Defeat of Attila the Hun by 
Theod'oric the Visigoth, and Aetius. 
476. Roman Empire overthrown by Odoacer. 

481. Clovis, founder of the French monarchy, d. 511. 

493. Theod'oric the Great, founder of the Empire of the Ostro- 
goths, d. 526. 



LITERATURE AND ART. 41 

Clement of Alexandria, abt. 193 - 21 7. Ch. 

Tertullian of Carthage, d. 220. L. Ch, 

Cassias Dio, the historian. 

Origen of Alexandria, 185-253. Ch. — Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage, 

d. 258. L. Ch. 
Longinus, " On the Sublime," d. 273. 
Plotinus, the mystic philosopher. — Porphyry, his disciple, an opponent 

of Christianity. 

Arnobius and Lactantius. L. Ch. 

Eusebius, Bishop of Cajsarea, d. about 340. Ch. 

Arius of Alexandria, a heretic, d. 336. Ch. 

Athanasius, Archbishop of Alexandria, d. 373. Ch. 

Amnrianus Marcelllnus, a Greek historian, d. about 390. L. 

Basil, Bishop of Csesarea, renowned for eloquence, 329 - 379. Ch. 

Gregory Nazianzen, Patriarch of Constantinople, 329 - 390. Ch. 

Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, 340-397. L. Ch. 

Chrysostom, Archbishop of Constantinople, 347-407. Ch. 

Claudian, the last Roman poet. L. 

Jerome (Hieronymus), b. at Stridon 331, d. 420. L. Ch. 

Pelagius, a heretic. L. Ch. 

Augustine, Bishop of Hippo, 354-330. L. Ch. 

Cyril, Archbishop of Alexandria, d. 444. Ch. 



Boetius, Eoman philosopher, about 470 - 524. L. 



OUTLINES OF ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY 

BY CENTURIES. 

Cent. 
B. C. 

6th. Persian Empire. — Tyranny of Pisistratus. — Roman Monarchy. 
Solon. Cyrus. Pythaguras. 

Grecian Period. 
5th. Persian Invasion. — Athenian Hegemony. — Peloponnesian War- 
— Roman Republic. — Struggles of Patricians and Plebeians. 
Themistocles. -ZEschylus. Pericles. Phidias. Socrates. 
4th. Spartan and Theban Hegemonies. — Macedonian Empire. 
Samnite Wars. — Roman Conquest of Italy. 
Plato. Epaminondas. Demosthenes. Aristotle. Alexander. 
Camillus. Appius Claudius Ccecus. 

Roman Period. 
3d. Invasion of Pyrrhus. — Eirst and Second Punic "Wars. — The 
successors of Alexander. — JEtolian and Acha?an Leagues. 
Dentatus. Hannibal. Scipio Africanus. Archimedes. 
2d. Conquest of Greece, &c. — Decay of the Republic. 

Philopcemen. Cato the Censor. The Gracchi. Marius. 
1st. Civil Wars. — Overthrow of the Republic. 

Sulla. Cicero. Pompey. Caesar. Virgil. Augustus. 

Roman Empire. 

A. D. 

1st. The Claudian and Flavian Houses. (The Twelve Caesars.) 

2d. The Empire at its height — The Antonines. — Military despot- 
ism. 

3d. A succession of worthless Emperors until Diocletian. 

4th. A strong empire established by Constantine. — Christianity the 
state religion. — Division of the Empire. 

5th. Invasions of the barbarians. — The Western Empire broken up. 
Alaric. Genseric. Attila. Odoacer. Theodoric. 



MYTHOLOGY. 



GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY, 



1. The children of Uranus, Heaven, and Gaia, Earth, 
were the twelve Titans, among them Oceanus, Hy- 
perion, Iapetus, Cronos, Rhea, Themis, and Mne- 
mosyne'; also the three Cyclops, and the three Hun- 
dred-handed, 'EKaroyxcipes, of whom Briareus was the 
most noted. Uranus was dethroned by CrOHOS, who married 
Rhea (§ 25), and was father of Zeus (§ 2), Hera (§ 3), 
Poseidon (§ 20), Hades (§ 29), and Hestia (§ 11). 
Cronos, in his turn, was dethroned by his sons, who then 
divided his realms, Zeus obtaining Heaven, Poseidon the 
Sea, and Hades the Infernal Regions. The Titans re- 
belled against Zeus, and attempted to scale heaven by 
piling Mt. Pelion upon Ossa, but were subdued with the 
aid of the *Hundred-handed. 

I. Heaven (Olympian Gods). 

2. ZeilS, Jupiter* He was attended by the eagle, and 
wielded the thunderbolt. His most famous temple, and 
statue by Phidias, were at Olympia ; Ins oracle, at Do- 

* The names of the Roman gods with whom these are usually iden- 
tified are appended. 



46 GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 

dona ; lie was worshipped with peculiar rites and human 
sacrifices on Mt. Lycaeus ; also worshipped at Crete. 

3. Hera, Juno, the goddess of marriage ; especially wor- 
shipped at Samos and Argos ; the peacock was sacred to 
her. Her statue by Polycletus was at the Herasum, near 
Argos. 

4. HephSBStllS, Vulcan, god of fire ; son of Zeus and He- 
ra ; lame, married to Aphrodite ; worshipped at Lemnos. 

5. Athena, or Pallas, Minerva, goddess of wisdom, sprung 
from the head of Zeus : the patron deity of Athens, where 
her bronze statue, by Phidias, Athena Promtichos, per- 
haps 70 feet high, stood on the Acropolis. Represented 
with helmet, shield, spear, the aegis, (a mantle on which 
is a gorgon's head, § 36,) and sometimes a serpent at her 
feet : the owl was sacred ,to her. 

6. Apollo, or Phoebus, god of the sun and of art, son of 
Zeus and Leto, Latona. Worshipped at Delos and 
Amyclae ; his oracle was at Delphi, where he killed the 
serpent Python, and Mt. Parnassus was sacred to him. 
Represented with bow and arrows or a lyre. He drove 
the chariot of the sun about the earth daily, but one day 
permitted his son Phaethon to take his place, who threw 
all things into confusion, and was struck down by a thun- 
derbolt of Zeus. He killed his friend Hyacinthus by 
accident with a quoit, in whose honor the festival Hya- 
cinthia (§ 116) was celebrated. He loved Daphne, who 
was changed into a laurel. 

7. Artemis, or Phoebe, Diana, his sister; goddess of the 
moon, of hunting, and chastity ; worshipped at Delos, 



GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 47 

Brauron, the Tauric Chersonesus, and Ephesus : in love 
with Endymion, a beautiful youth represented in a per- 
petual sleep. She appears also as Hecate, a mysterious 
threefold being, representing sun, moon, and earth. 

8. Ares, Mars, god of war, son of Zeus and Hera. 

9. Aphrodite, Venus, goddess of beauty and love ; sprung 
from the foam on the sea ; worshipped at Corinth, Cyprus, 
and Cythera. Her cestus, or girdle, conferred the power 
of fascination. She loved Adonis, who was killed by a 
wild boar. — Eros, Cupid, son of Ares and Aphrodite: 
represented as a winged boy, with bow and arrows ; in 
love with Psyche. 

10. Hermes, Mercury, god of commerce, eloquence, and 
thieving, messenger of the gods ; son of Zeus and M a i a . 
He had a winged cap, wings on his feet, and carried a 
purse and the caduceus, a winged staff with two snakes 
coiled about it. He conducted the souls of the dead to 
the lower regions ; hence called -fyvxoTrojntos. 

11. Hestia, Vesta, goddess of the hearth. 

Lesser Deities of Heaven. 

12. Iris, the rainbow, messenger between Heaven and 
Earth. — Hebe, Youth, the cup-bearer of the gods ; her place 
was afterwards taken by Ganymede. — Nike, Victory, 
with palm and wreath; daughter of Zeus and Styx. 

13. The Hours, *Qpai, Eunomia, Order, Dike, Eight, 
and Irene, Peace : daughters of Zeus and Themis, Jus- 
tice (§ 1). — Astrrea was another daughter, who lived 
among men during the golden age, then withdrew among 
the stars. 



48 GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 

14. The Graces, Xdptres, Aglaia, Euphrosyne, and 
Thalia, daughters of Zeus and Eurynome. 

15. The Muses, daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne (§ 1) : 
they dwelt on Mt. Helicon, where were the fountains of 
Aganippe and Hippocrene. They were, — 1. Clio, of 
history, with a scroll. 2. Calliope, of epic poetry, with 
tablets and stylus. 3. Euterpe, of lyric poetry, with 
a double flute. 4. Melpomene, of tragedy, with a tragic 
mask, the club of Hercules, and the cothurnus, or buskin. 
5. Tlialia, of comedy, with a comic mask, a shepherd's 
staff, and wreath of ivy. 6. Terpsichore, of dancing, with 
lyre and plectrum (instrument for touching the strings of 
the lyre). 7. Erato, of amatory poetry, sometimes with the 
lyre. 8. Polyhymnia, of sacred song, veiled. 9. Urailia, of 
astronomy, with a staff pointing to the celestial globe. They 
were led by Apollo. 

16. Asclepios, JEsculapius, god of healing, son of Apollo; 
represented as an old man, with a staff around which a 
serpent is twined; generally accompanied by Hygiea 
Health. The chief seat of his worship was Epidaurus. — 
Ilitliyia, Lucina, goddess of birth. 

17. The Fates, Molpai, daughters of Night : Clotho, who 
spins tfce thread of life, with a spindle; L ache sis, who 
appoints man his fate, pointing to the horoscope on the 
globe, and Atropos, the inexorable, with scales or scis- 
sors. — Nemesis, goddess of vengeance. 

18. JlolllS, god of the winds. — EOS, Aurora, goddess of 
the morning, married to Tit bonus. 

19. Momus, god of laughter. — MorplieilS, god of sleep. — 
PlutUS, god of riches. — Hymen, god of marriage. 



GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 49 

II. The Sea (Marine Gods). 

20. Poseidon, Neptune; worshipped peculiarly at the 
Isthmic sanctuary, and at Tgenarum : represented with 
wet locks, trident, and dolphin or horse. His wife is 
Amphitrlte (§ 22), and his chief companion Triton, 
blowing on a conch-shell. He was father to Polyphe- 
mus, the man-eating Cyclops. — He contended with Athe- 
na (§ 5) which should give the name to Athens ; the 
honor was adjudged to Athena for her creation of the 
olive-tree, which was decided to be a more valuable gift 
to man than that of the horse by Poseidon. 

21. ProteilS, a seer, living in the sea, and possessing the 
power of changing his form at will. — GlailCUS, another sea- 
prophet, whose body ended in a fish's tail. 

22. NereilS, (the calm sea,) with his daughters, the Ne- 
reids, or Sea-nymphs, the chief of whom are Amphi- 
trlte and Thetis. 

23. Ino, daughter of Cadmus (§ 38), and wife of Atha- 
mas (§ 45), being made mad by Hera, leapt into the sea 
with her son Melicertes; she became the goddess Leu- 

cothea, he the god Palsemon. 

24. The Sirens, the "Muses of the Sea," treacherous 
and seductive, beguiling voyagers to their destruction. — 
Scylla, a monster with six dog's-heads, and twelve fore- 
legs : the rest of her body concealed in a cave. Opposite 
is Charybdis, under a wild fig-tree ; a fearful whirlpool. 
Supposed to have been at the Straits of Messina. 

3* 



50 GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 

III. The Earth (Chthonian Gods). 

25. Cybele or Rhea, mother of the gods, accompanied by 
the Curetes; worshipped with peculiar rites by the Cory- 
bantes, in Phrygia (Mt. Ida, &c.) ; also worshipped in 
Crete. 

26. Dionysus or Bacchus, son of Zeus and Semele; 
god of friendship, and wine; married to Ariadne on 
the island of Naxos. He was represented as crowned 
with ivy, sometimes young, sometimes bearded, carrying 
the thyrsus, a pole crowned with a pine-cone, or vine or 
ivy leaves. His expedition to India was celebrated. His 
Thiasos, or company, consisted of Pan, the god of 
nature, with pointed ears and legs of a goat, playing on 
a pipe of reeds; Priapus, the god of fertility ; the Sa- 
tyrs, sportive beings of merely animal nature, of human 
form with ears and tail of a goat ; the S i 1 e n i , formed 
like the Satyrs, sometimes drunken, sometimes grave 
and noble; the Centaurs, horses with men's heads (the 
chief of whom was Chiron) ; the Nymphs, of whom the 
Naiads are of the water, the Oreads of the mountains, 
the Dryads of trees, (the Hamadryads attached to a single 
tree,) &c. — Among the Nymphs was Echo, who out of 
love for Narcissus faded away to a mere voice, while 
Narcissus died of love for his own reflection. — He was 
worshipped with wild nocturnal rites every other year at 
the winter solstice, by the women (Bacchas or M as n si- 
des). Thebes was the chief seat of his worship in Greece, 
but it was peculiarly celebrated in Thrace and Asia Mi- 



GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 51 

nor. — The origin of the Athenian Drama is connected 
with his festivals. 

27. Demeter, Ceres, "Mother Earth," goddess of agricul- 
ture, and author, Beatiocpopos, of certain laws touching hu- 
man life ; worshipped with peculiar solemnity, together 
with her daughter Proserpine or Koprj, and Dionysus, in 
the mysteries at Eleusis, once a year. Her symbols were 
a garland of ears of corn, and a poppy. She taught her 
art to Triptolemus, "the thrice-ploughing," who then 
instructed men in it. 

28. The Cabiri of Lemnos and Samothrace practised 
strange rites, little understood, but perhaps similar to the 
Eleusinian Mysteries (§27). 

IV. The Lower Regions (Hades). 

29. Pluto, or HadCS, King of the Under-world ; married 
Persephone, Proserpine (§ 27), daughter of Demeter, whom 
he stole from earth while gathering flowers : she spent 
half the year with him, half with her mother. 

30. The rivers of Hades were the Styx, which formed 
the boundary, Acheron, stream of woe, Pyriphlege- 
thon, iire-stream, Cocytus, wailing-stream, and Lethe, 
oblivion. — Cerberus, the three-headed dog, watched the 
entrance, and Charon ferried the souls of the dead, 
conducted to him by Hermes (§ 10), across the Styx. 

31. The judges were Minos, Rhadamanthus, and 
^acus. They sent the souls of the good to Elysium, 
while the wicked were punished in Tartarus. The most 



52 GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 

noted punishments were those of Tityus, whose liver 
was gnawed by two vultures; Tantalus (§41), placed 
in a pool the waters of which shrank from him when he 
wished to drink, and under a tree whose branches re- 
treated when he would pluck the fruit; Sisyphus, a 
wicked K. of Corinth, forever rolling a stone up a hill ; 
Ixlon (§ 50), bound hand and foot to a turning wheel; 
and the Danaidse (§39), bringing water in a sieve. 

32. The Furies, 'Epivies, were Ti si phone, the deadly 
avenger, Alec to, the tireless pursuer, and Megaera, the 
terror-inspiring. They were also worshipped as Eume- 
nides, the Well-wishing, 2e/xi/cu, the August, and Uorpiai, 
the Revered. 

V. Heroes and Demigods. 

33. Prometheus, [tragedy by iEschylus,] forethought, 
(son of Iapetus, §1,) outwitted Zeus in various ways. 
He stole fire from heaven, and gave it to men ; accord- 
ing to some accounts he formed men. He was punished 
by being chained to a rock on Mt. Caucasus, where an 
eagle fed upon his liver. His brother Epiuietheus, after- 
thought, received from Zeus a beautiful woman, Pandora, 
all-gifts, to whom each of the gods had given some 
charm ; she lifted the lid of the vessel in which all the 
ills of humanity were hidden, and let them escape, only 
hope remaining behind. 

34 Deucalion, son of Prometheus, and his wife Pyrrlia, 
the only persons saved from a deluge. Being told by an 



GEECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 53 

oracle to throw their mother's bones behind them, they 
threw stones (the bones of their mother Earth), which were 
changed, those thrown by Deucalion into men, those by 
Pyrrha into women. He was father of Hell en, eponyme 
of the Greeks (i. e. who gave his name to the nation). 

35. OrpllCUS, a musician of Thrace, whose music charmed 
the wild beasts and the forest-trees. When his wife 
Eurydice died, he won Pluto by the charms of his 
lyre to restore her to life, but lost her again by turning 
round to look upon her. He was torn in pieces by the 
Thracian women. 

36. Argos. Io was loved by Zeus, and changed by 
him into a heifer, watched at Hera's command by the 
hundred-eyed Argos Panoptes. She was then driven 
by a gad-fly to Egypt. Her grandson DanailS returned to 
Argos, and when his fifty daughters the Danaidae (§ 31) 
married the fifty sons of his brother ^Egyptus, they 
all except one slew their husbands at his command. — 
PcrseilS was descended from him, a son of Zeus and 
Danae. With the aid of Athena he killed the Gorgon 
Medusa, a woman with snakes for hair, whose look 
turned the beholder into stone; the winged horse Pe- 
gasus sprang from her blood. Perseus delivered An- 
dromeda from a dragon and married her. 

37. Heracles, Hercules, [trag. by Euripides,] was de- 
scended from Perseus (§ 36) ; son of Zeus and Alcmene ; 
he was condemned by Hera to perform twelve labors at 
the command of his cousin Eurystheus: — 1. To kill 
the Nemean Hon: he always afterwards wore its hide. 



54 GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 

2. To slay the Lernaean hydra, a monster with nine heads. 

3. To subdue the Erymanthian boar. 4. To catch the 
brazen-footed hind of Arcadia, sacred to Artemis. 5. To 
destroy the Styniphalian birds. 6. To cleanse the stables 
of Augeas. 7. To capture the Cretan bull. 8. To bring 
to Mycenae the man-eating horses of K. Diomede of Thrace. 
9. To get possession of the girdle of Hippolyte, Q. of the 
Amazons (§ 46). 10. To drive off the oxen of the giant 
Geryon. 11. To fetch the golden apples from the gardens 
of the Hesperides (daughters of the heaven-supporting 
Atlas). 12. To bring Cerberus (§ 30) from the Infernal 
Regions (he descended by the entrance at Tasnarum). — 
He was killed by a poisoned tunic given him by his wife 
in a fit of jealousy. 

38. Thebes. Cadmus came from Phoenicia in search 
of his sister Eur op a, who had been carried off by Zeus, 
in the shape of a white bull. At Thebes he killed a 
dragon and sowed its teeth in the earth, from which sprang 
anned men, who all slew each other except five, who 
were the ancestors of the Thebans. — (EdipilSj [tragedies 
by Sophocles,] one of his descendants, was son of La'ius 
and Jocasta ; he killed Laius in ignorance, and married 
Jocasta, after solving the enigma of the Sphinx (a mon- 
ster with the body of a lion and the head of a woman) ; 
thus becoming K. of Thebes. His sons, Eteocles and 
PolynJces, quarrelled, which occasioned the war of the 
" Seven against Thebes " [trag. by iEschylus]. The two 
brothers killed each other; their sister Antigone [trag. 
by Sophocles] buried the body of Polynices in defiance 
of the edict of the tyrant Creon. 



GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 55 

39. Athens. Cecrops and EriclltllOllillS or Ereclltheus were 
autochthons (i. e. sprung from the earth), and kings of 
Athens ; Erechtheus had in part the form of a serpent. — 
Philomela- and Procne were daughters of Pandion, 
son of Erichthonius. Procne was married to Tereus, 
K. of the Thracians, who dishonored Philomela and tore 
out her tongue. She was changed into a nightingale, 
Procne into a swallow, and Tereus into a hoopoe. — 
Theseus, son of K. .iEgeus, was the national hero of 
Athens. He killed the Minotaur (half man, half bull) 
in the Labyrinth of K. Minos in Crete, fought with the 
Amazons (§ 46), and founded many excellent institutions 
in Athens. Forgetting on his return from Crete to hoist 
white sails as signal of his safety, his father in despair 
threw himself into the sea, hence called ^Ege'an. — His son 
Hippolytus unjustly incurred his displeasure and was 
cursed by him ; upon which Poseidon frightened the horses 
of Hippolytus, who dragged him till he was dead. 

40. Sparta. The Dioscuri, Aios Kovpoi, were sons of 
Leda ; Castor (and his sister Clytoamnestra, wife of 
Agamemnon, § 41), by Tyndareus ; Polydeuccs, Pollux, 
(and his sister Helen, wife of Menelaus, § 41,) by Zeus. 
Polydeuces was therefore immortal, but shared his im- 
mortality with his brother ; he was noted for boxing, 
Castor for horsemanship. 

41. Family of Tantalus, upon which a special curse 
rested. TailtalllS (§ 31), a king in Asia Minor, was a fa- 
vorite of the gods, to whom, to test them, he served up 
the flesh of his own son Pelops. Pelops, restored to life, 



5G GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 

went to Greece, and gave his name to the Peloponnesus. — 
His sons, Atreus and Thyestes, quarrelled, and Atreus 
served up the sons of Thyestes {Thyeste'an banquet) to 
their father. The sons of Atreus were Agamemnon, K. of 
Mycenae, and MeiielailS, K. of Sparta (§§ 42 ff) . — Niobe, 
daughter of Tantalus, boasted of her twelve children above 
those of Leto (§ 6) ; at the request of their mother, Apollo 
and Artemis slew them all ; Niobe was then changed into 
stone. 

42. When Peleus and Thetis (§22) were married, all 
the gods were invited except Eris, Discord, who in re- 
venge threw among the guests a golden apple inscribed 
" To the most beautiful." Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite 
contended for it, and chose Paris, or Alexander, — son of 
Priam, K. of Troy, and Hecuba [trag. by Euripides], — 
to decide between them; Hera promising him sovereignty 
and wealth, Athena glory, Aphrodite the hand of Helen 
(§ 40), the fairest woman in the world. He decided in 
favor of Aphrodite, abandoned his wife CEnone, and stole 
Helen from her husband. 

43. Trojan War. The Greek chiefs went under the 
lead of Agamemnon (§41) to reclaim Helen (§ 42). 
Being detained at Aulis, Iphigenia [tragedies of Euripi- 
des], daughter of Agamemnon, was sacrificed to appease 
Artemis. After a siege of ten years, Troy was taken by 
means of a wooden horse, and sacked. — The most re- 
nowned of the Greek leaders were Nestor of Pylus, famed 
for his wisdom ; Ulysses of Ithaca, son of Laertes, for 
his cunning ; Achilles, son of Peleus and Thetis (§ 42), 



GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 57 

the bravest of the Greeks, K. of the Myrmidons (a peo- 
ple sprung from ants) in Thessaly ; Ajax [trag. by Soph- 
ocles], son of Telamon, of Salamis, and Diomcdes, son of 
Tydeus, of Argos, the two ranking next to Achilles; 
Ajax the Less, son of Oileus, of Locris ; IdomeneUS, K, of 
Crete ; and PlliloctetCS [trag. by Sophocles], the best archer 
in the army. The soothsayer was Calchas. — The chiefs 
of the Trojans were Hector and DeiphobllS, sons of Priam, 
iEneas, son of Anchises and Aphrodite, Sarpedoil, and 
Anterior. Andromache [trag. by Euripides] was wife 
of Hector, and A sty an ax his son. Cassandra, daugh- 
ter of Priam, was a prophetess condemned by Apollo 
never to be believed. — Hector was killed by Achilles in 
revenge for his friend Patroclus. Achilles was killed 
with an arrow by Paris, and Ajax slew himself in a fit 
of madness, because the armor of Achilles was adjudged 
to Ulysses rather than himself. The Lesser Ajax was 
dashed on a rock by Athena. Homer's Iliad relates 
some of the events of the siege. 

44. After the capture of Troy (§ 43), iEneas went to 
Italy, on his way visiting Queen Dido in Carthage; his 
adventures are narrated in Virgil's JEneid. His son 
AscanillS, or lulus, was ancestor of the kings of Alba, and, 
as was supposed, of the Julian gens (§ 127). — Homer's 
Odyssey contains the wanderings of Ulysses for ten 
years, during which he met with the Cyclops Polyphe- 
mus (§ 20), the Sirens (§ 24), the sorceress Circe, and 
the nymph Calypso. His wife Penelope was beset 
with suitors in his absence, whom she put off under pre- 



58 GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 

tence of finishing a piece of cloth in her loom, while 
she unravelled every night what she had done in the day. 
His son Telemachus went in search of his father under 
guidance of Athena, in the form of M e n t o r . When Ulysses 
reached home he was recognized only by his nurse and 
old dog Argus. — On Agamemnon's return to My cense 
he was murdered [trag. by JEschylus] by his wife Cly- 
ta3mnestra (§ 40) and her paramour jEgisthus. His 
son Orestes [trag. by Euripides] avenged him by killing 
both, for which deed he was pursued by the Eumenides 
(§ 32), [trag. by JEschylus,] and consoled by his sister 
Electra [tragedies by Sophocles and Euripides]. 

45. Argonautic Expedition. The ram with the 
Golden Fleece had swum from Thessaly to Colchis, car- 
rying Phrixos and Helle, children of Athamas; but 
Helle being drowned gave her name to the Hellespont. 
Jason went in the ship Argo to recover the Fleece. On 
the way his companions drove the Harpies, filthy and 
ravenous birds, from the table of K. Phineus. Medea 
[trag. by Euripides], a famous sorceress, helped Jason ob- 
tain the fleece, and married him. 

46. Amazons, a warlike race of women, upon the R. 
Thermodon. They invaded Greece under their Q. Hip- 
polyte, who was defeated and married by Theseus (§ 39). 
They also brought aid to the Trojans (§ 43). 

47. Meleager killed the Calydonian boar. His mother, 
Althsea, kept a brand plucked from the fire, on which 
his life depended ; when he killed her brothers in a quar- 
rel, she threw the brand in the fire. 



GRECIAN MYTHOLOGY. 59 

48. Bellerophon killed the Chimgera, a monster with 
the head of a lion, the body of a goat, and the tail of a 
dragon. 

49. AdmetUS, a king of Thessaly, whose flocks Apollo 
tended. When he was about to die, his life was prom- 
ised on condition that any one would die for him, and 
these terms were accepted by his wife Alcestis [trag. 
by Euripides]. 

50. LapitllBE, a rude people of Thessaly, who fought with 
the Centaurs (§ 26) ; among them were Ixion (§ 31), 
noted for his treachery, and his son Pirithous, who de- 
scended to Hades with Theseus (§ 39) to rescue Proserpine. 

51. Ampllion and ZetllUS, sons of Zeus and Antiope; 
Zethus fierce, Amphion gentle, skilled on the lyre, by the 
aid of which he built the walls of Thebes. They bound 
Dirce, who had plotted against their mother's life, to a 
wild bull, which they turned loose. 

52. Atalanta, famed for swiftness of foot. Her hand 
was promised to whoever would outstrip her, which 
Milanion accomplished by dropping golden apples in 
her path. 

53. Daedalus, built the Cretan Labyrinth (§ 39) ; im- 
prisoned by K. Minos, he made wings fastened with wax, 
for himself and his son Icarus, who flew so high, how- 
ever, that the sun melted the wax, and he fell into the 
sea, which was called from him Icarian. 

54. Marsyas, a satyr of Phrygia, who vied on his flute 
with Apollo's lyre ; being vanquished, he was flayed alive 
by Apollo. 



ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 



55. JailllS, the god of opening ; the first day of every 
month was sacred to him : represented with a double face, 
generally bearded. His temple was open in time of war, 
and shut in time of peace. 

56. Jupiter j the root is the same as Zeus (§ 2) with 
pater added. Jupiter Statorwas the guardian of Rome; 
to Jupiter Feretrius were offered the spolia opima, 
when the commander of the enemy was slain by the 
Roman general. 

57. Mars, the patron deity of Rome, held in high honor 
throughout Italy ; Mars Gradivus, father of Romulus, 
was the god of the Salii (§ 149). It was a Sabine cus- 
tom to consecrate to Mars all male children born in a 
certain spring (called ver sacrum), who when they were 
grown up went off by themselves and formed a settle- 
ment. This was the origin of the Samnites and the Lu- 
canians. — Belloiia, goddess of war. 

58. QuirinilS, the Sabine Mars, special divinity of Cures 
(same root as Cures, Quirlt.es, Quirindlis, &c). In later 
times identified with Romulus. 

59. Juno, the feminine form of Jupiter ; as Lucina she 
was goddess of birth. 



ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 61 

60. Minerva, goddess of wisdom, and of handicrafts. — 
In the Capitolium, or Temple of Jupiter upon the Cap- 
itoline, Minerva had a cell at the right, Juno at the left 
of that of Jupiter, according to Etruscan usage. 

61. Diana, the feminine form of Janus (Dianus) ; god- 
dess of the moon ; she had a noted sanctuary, JSfemus, 
near Aricia (Lake JVemi). 

62. Neptune, god of the sea. — ConsUS, at whose festival, 
Consualia (§ 173), the Sabine women were carried off, is 
sometimes identified with Neptune. 

63. Vulcan, or Mulciber, god of fire and of the smithy. 

64. Liber Pater, god of freedom and joy ; identified with 
Bacchus ; at his festival, Liber alia (§ 173), young men 
assumed the toga virilis (§ 180). 

65. Ceres, goddess of the earth; there were festivals of 
Ceres, Liber, and Libera, in imitation of the Greek wor- 
ship of Demeter, Dionysus, and Cora (§ 27). 

QQ. Mercury, god of traffic ; Terminus, of boundaries. 

67. Venus, goddess of love and beauty; Venus Gene- 
trix was especially honored by the Julian gens as their 
ancestor (see §§ 43 and 44). 

68. Vesta, goddess of the hearth. She was served by 
six Virgins of noble birth, whose parents must both be liv- 
ing (patrima et matrimd). It was their duty to keep the 
eternal fire burning upon her altar ; they were vowed to 
virginity, and if found guilty of breaking the vow were 
buried alive. 

69. The Penates, or household gods, and the Genius, both 
of the family and the individual, were worshipped with 



62 ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

great honor. The Penates were brought by iEneas (§ 44) 
to Lavinium, where they were especially reverenced. 

70. Saturn and Ops, the old Italian god and goddess of 
the Earth: he was represented with a sickle. From him 
Italy was sometimes called Saturnia. 

71. Yejovis, the "evil Jove," a harmful divinity. — Dics- 
piter was the name of Jupiter as god of the Fetiales 
(§ 150) and guardians of faith. 

72. Mater MatUta, goddess of birth, also of harbors. — 
Bona Dea or Maia, goddess of increase ; worshipped by 
women alone on the first of May (§ 173). — Aurora, god- 
dess of the morning. 

73. Apollo Soranus, worshipped on Mt. Soracte ; cer- 
tain families were consecrated to his service and called 
Hirpi (wolves). — Semo Sancus, or Dius Fidius, god of faith, 
a Sabine god, whose name was used in oaths. 

74. Pales, goddess of herds, worshipped in the festival 
Palilia (§ 173), the anniversary of the founding of Rome. 
Other rural deities were PiCHS, Faunus and Faillia (cf. Pan 
and Satyrs, §26; the feast Lupercalia, §173, was in hon- 
or of Faunus, celebrated by the Luperci, clad in goat- 
skins), Silvanus (of woods), Feronia (who had a grove 
near Mt. Soracte, where fairs were held), Flora (of flow- 
ers), VertumilUS (of fruits), and Pomona (of the orchard). 

75. Ol'CUS, god of death; Dis Pater, god of the Under- 
world. — The spirits of the dead were called Manes. The 
Lares were the glorified spirits of the good, especially of 
ancestors ; the lar familiaris of a house was its founder 
and protector. The Lai'VBB and Lemures were evil spirits, 



ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 63 

wandering about by night. — The Pai'CSB, Nona, Decu- 
raa, and Morta, presiding over birth; afterwards iden- 
tified with the Greek Fates (§ 17). 

76. Dii Indigetes, deified heroes ; as JEneas (§ 44). 

77. Temples were erected by the Romans to many ab- 
stract qualities ; e. g. Pavor and Pallor, Honos and Virtus, Con- 
cordia, Libertas, Pudicitia, and above all Fors Fortuna (wor- 
shipped especially at Prseneste and Antium). 

78. Juno Sospita Mater Reglna, one of the most widely 
reverenced deities of Latium : represented with shield, 
spear, goat-skin helmet and mantle, and pointed shoes ; 
her chief sanctuary was at Lanuvium, where she had a 
flamen (§ 148). 

*^* The worship of the following divinities was intro- 
duced from Greece. 

79. Apollo (§6); introduced very early, and becoming 
very wide-spread. The Sibyls were his prophetesses, 
the chief of whom in Italy were the Cumsean and the 
Tiburtine (there was a temple of the Sibyl at Tibur). 

80. Cybele, or Idsea Mater (§ 25), introduced B. C. 207, 
at the direction of the Sibylline books (§ 145) ; received 
by P. Scipio Nasica, as being " optimus Romanorum." 

81. iEsculapillS (§ 6) ; introduced B. C. 291, after a pes- 
tilence, by the same authority. The holy serpent was 
brought from Epidaurus, and, when the ship arrived in 
the Tiber, crept upon the island, which was afterwards 
sacred to iEsculapius. 

82. The worship of Hercules (§ 37), and that of Castor 



64 EOMAN MYTHOLOGY. 

and Pollux (§ 40), were introduced early, and became 
prominent in Roman mythology. Hercules killed the rob- 
ber Cacus; Castor and Pollux aided the Romans in the 
battle of Lake Regillus. The worship of Hercules be- 
longed to the two gentes Potitii and Pinarii, the lat- 
ter being inferior because they arrived late when the rites 
were established. Afterwards the Potitii sold the knowl- 
edge of the rites, which were thenceforward conducted by 
public slaves ; the Potitii all perished in consequence of 
this act of impiety. 

83. BaccllUS (§26); the secret and indecent rites of 
Bacchus began to get a foothold among the citizens, but 
were suppressed B. C. 186. 

84. Under the empire many Oriental observances were 
introduced, particularly, from Egypt, the worship of Isis 
(§ 86), represented with a lotos-flower and a knot tied 
upon her breast ; and Serapis, of sombre countenance, the 
head surrounded with sun's rays, and with the modius for 
a cap ; also from Persia that of Mitlll'as, a god of light, 
whose worship was symbolized by the figure of a man 
slaying a bull, whose blood is tasted by a dog, a serpent, 
and a scorpion. 



EGYPTIAN MYTHOLOGY. 



85. Amnion, Jupiter, the great god of Thebes, repre- 
sented with a ram's head or horns. He had a famous 
oracle in Libya. 

86. Osiris, Bacchus, and Isis, Ceres, his sister and wife. 
A great benefactor, who taught the cultivation of the 
earth. He was killed by his brother Set, Typhon, but his 
soul was supposed to live in the holy bull Apis, at Mem- 
phis, while he himself ruled over the lower world as Se- 

rapis. 

87. HorUS, Apollo {Horapollo), son of Osiris and Isis; 
known also as Harpocrates, god of silence, born with his 
finger on his lips, and so represented. — AnuMs, son of 
Osiris (with a dog's head), was the companion of Isis, 
and the conductor of souls to the Under-world. 

88. Phtliah, Vulcan, chief god of Memphis ; Neith, 
Minerva, chief deity of Sa'is; Pacht, or Bubastis, Diana, 
represented with a cat's head ; Seb, Saturn, whose sym- 
bol was the goose ; Thoth, Mercury, to whom the ibis was 
sacred; Savak, the crocodile-god; Athor, Venus; Ncptliys, 

Vesta. 

4 



ANTIQUITIES 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 



I. ATHENS. 

89. The government of Athens, originally a monarchy, 
became afterwards an oligarchy. Its early institutions were 
attributed to Theseus (§ 39), who made Athens capital of 
Attica, and established the PrytaneilHl, or national hearth, 
where a perpetual fire was kept burning. As in all Ionic 
cities, the citizens were divided according to birth into 
4 Tribes, <pv\ov or (pv\rj, each subdivided into 3 PhratriSB, 
cpparpla (cf. Curia, § 123), and each phratria into 30 Geiltes, 
yevos (cf. Gens, § 127). This division continued even after 
the reforms of Clisthenes (§ 92), as a means of preserving 
the purity and legitimacy of descent. 

90. Side by side with this division was another into 12 
Trittyes, rpiTrvs, (3 to each tribe,) and 48 NailCl'aries, vavKpapia. 
The nobles were called Eupatrids, 'Evnarpihai ; the people 
as a political body were called Arjpos. 

91. This aristocratic constitution was changed by Solon, 
B. C. 594, into one based upon wealth, Timocracy ; the 
citizens being divided according to landed property into four 

;, of which only the first enjoyed full political rights, 



70 GEECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

the fourth, the Tlietes, being excluded from all offices, as 
well as free from taxes and regular military service. 

92. Clisthenes, B. C. 510, founded the Democracy, 
admitting all free inhabitants, without distinction of birth 
or wealth, to a share in the government ; and his reforms 
were still further carried out by Aristides and Pericles. 
Clisthenes created ten new tribes in place of the old four, 
among which he distributed the Denies, Brjuot (towns and 
villages), of Attica, without regard to juxtaposition. — An 
individual was designated by giving his own name, that of 
his father, and that of the deme ; e. g. Demosthenes, son of 
Demosthenes, a Paeanian (ArjuoaQevrjs ArjyLoaOlvovs Ilaiavievs). 

93. Besides the citizens, there were always in Athens a 
large number of resident foreigners (MeticS, fxeroiKoi), and 
about three quarters of all the inhabitants of Attica were 
slaves. — The whole population in the time of Demos- 
thenes appears to have been about 500,000, of whom about 
20,000 were citizens. 

94. Archons. 

Established on the expulsion of the kings, and inheriting 
their power ; at first one, afterwards nine in number, chosen 
annually, and after the time of Clisthenes (§ 92) by lot. 
In historical time their functions were chiefly judicial, e. g. 
presiding in the Heliastic courts (§ 97). They were: — 
1. The Arclion EponyillllS, from whom the year was named, 
whose jurisdiction was in cases involving the interests of 
families ; e. g. inheritance, the property of widows and or- 
phans, etc. 2. The King ArcliOU, who presided at certain 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 71 

festivals, and in trials where the religion of the state was 
involved, including sacrilege and murder. 3. The Polemai'Cll, 
originally commander-in-chief, afterwards having jurisdic- 
tion over foreigners and metics (§ 93). (Cf. Praetor Pere- 
grinus, § 131.) 4. The six ThesmotlietSB, whose jurisdiction 
extended to all cases not specially provided for. 

95. Ephet^e. 

A court of 51 judges, established by Draco, B. C. 624. 
They were presided over by the King Archon (§ 94), and 
tried cases of homicide, sitting in five different places ac- 
cording to the circumstances of the homicide. After Solon 
gave jurisdiction in cases of wilful murder to the Senate of 
Areopagus (§ 96), they sat in only four places ; in later 
times they lost all importance, and sank to a mere form. 

96. Senate of Areopagus. *H lv *ApeiG> nayy Bov\r). 

The Court of Areopagus was established, or at least 
remodelled, by Solon, to try cases of wilful murder, etc., 
which had before probably belonged to the Ephetse (§ 95). 
It was composed of ex-archons (§ 94), who, on completing 
their term of office without disgrace, became members for 
life. Before the time of Pericles, and after the Pelopon- 
nesian War, it exercised also a censorial power (cf. Cen- 
sors, § 132) over the private life and religious customs of 
the Athenians, and was always regarded by them with 
peculiar reverence, its influence being felt as a check upon 
the democratical tendencies of the state. 



72 GKECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

97. DlCASTERIES. 

Each year the archons drew by lot the names of 6,000 
citizens, of over thirty years, 600 from each tribe ; which 
body, called the Helifta, was divided into 10 sections of 500 
each, called Dicasteries, 1,000 being kept in reserve to sup- 
ply vacancies (one of these being also added to each dicas- 
tery in order to make an odd number). In important cases, 
two, three, or even more dicasteries often sat together as 
a single court. Almost all judicial questions, except those 
belonging to the Areopagus (§ 96), came in the course of 
time to be intrusted to these dicasteries. Each dicast re- 
ceived three obols (§ 197) a day. 

Senate of Five Hundred, 'h BovKtj. 

98. Established by Solon, consisting of 400 members, 100 
from each tribe (§ 89). By Clisthenes the number was in- 
creased to 500, 50 being taken by lot from each of the new 
tribes (§ 92). This constituted a natural division into ten 
sections, the members of which, all belonging to the same 
tribe, were called Prytanes, irpwdveis. Each section in turn 
had (by lot) the presidency in the Senate (hence it was 
called the prytanizing tribe) for one tenth of a year, called 
a prytany ; and every day the Prytanes chose an Epistales 
from their own number to preside in the Senate or the 
Assembly (§ 100), and keep the keys of the treasury and 
archives. It was the duty of the Prytanes to meet every 
day (except festival days) during their prytany, but the 
Senators from the other tribes might be absent. In later 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 73 

times the Epistates selected one member from each of the 
non-pry tanizing tribes, nine in all, called Proedl'i, to repre- 
sent these tribes in the Senate ; and from these Proedri 
a second Epistates was chosen as their representative, to 
preside in both Senate and Assembly. 

99. The primary office of the Senate was to prepare 
matter for the action of the Assembly, in the form of 
jrpo(3ov\evfxa.Ta, or preliminary bills. When any such was 
charged with being illegal, the person making it was in- 
dicted by ypatyrj napavoixcov. — The Senate was the chief 
executive power in the state, had the regulation of finance, 
and decided on the qualifications of magistrates. Each 
member received a drachma (§ 197) a day. 

100. Assembly. 'EKKX^o-ia. 

Four regular meetings of the Assembly were held during 
each prytany (§ 98), — either in the Agora, the Pnyx, or 
later the Dionysiac Theatre, — and extraordinary ones at 
other times. It was the duty of every citizen twenty years 
old to attend. All subjects of general interest — public 
expenditures, taxes, alliances, appointment of state officers, 
matters of religion, etc. — legitimately came before the 
Assembly, the vote after discussion being taken generally 
by hand. It also exercised certain judicial functions, but 
its legislative power was limited, as it could only pass 
temporary decrees, ^(^tV/xara, upon matters presented to it 
by the Senate (§ 99). — To the people in their assembly 
belonged the right of banishing an obnoxious or dangerous 
citizen for ten, afterwards five years, by Ostracism, in which 



74 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

they voted with oyster-shells or potsherds inscribed with 
the name of the person to be banished ; 6,000 votes were 
necessary to condemn. — Three obols (§ 197) a day were 
received by every person attending the Assembly. 

101. NOMOTHET^E, &C. 

At the first public assembly of each year it was lawful 
to propose any changes in existing laws, which were then 
left to a judicial committee, vofiodeTat, taken from the He- 
liaea (§ 97), and probably presided over by the Thes- 
mothetae (§ 94). The question was argued before them 
as before a court, and they had full power to preserve 
or repeal. — The ^o^ocpvXaKes were persons intrusted by 
Pericles with the power, which had previously belonged 
to the Areopagus, of testing the legality of amendments 
to the 7rpo/3ovXev/LiaTa before they were brought before the 
Assembly. 

102. Later Changes. 

During the Peloponnesian War, B. C. 411, an aris- 
tocratical reaction placed the power in the hands of a 
committee of Four Hundred, while an assembly of five 
thousand wealthy citizens, which, however, never was 
called together, was to take the place of the Assembly. 
After four months the Democracy was restored. — After 
the power of Athens was crippled by the battle of iEgos- 
potami, B. C. 405, the Spartans gave the government to a 
committee of Thirty, who were overthrown by Thrasybu- 
lus, B. C. 403. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 75 

103. Liturgies. 

These were personal services rendered to the state by 
the wealthy citizens. The most important of the ordinary 
ones were the CllOregia, or duty of providing the chorus for 
festivals and dramatic exhibitions, and the Gymnasiarcllia, or 
duty of bearing the expenses of gymnastic exhibitions. — 
The Trierarchy was an extraordinary one, and consisted in 
the duty of fitting out and commanding a public ship. 
The original method was for a single wealthy individual 
to undertake this charge ; but a new system was adopted 
early in the 4th cent. B. C, by which 1,200 of the richest 
citizens were divided into 20 SyiMIlorics, and each of these 
into four companies, o-i/ireXetcu, each of which companies 
of fifteen men supported one ship, and provided a com- 
mander. This plan was superseded by that of Demos- 
thenes, which imposed the expense of a single ship upon 
every ten talents (§ 197) of taxable property. 

104. Finances. 

The Senate (§ 95) had the control of the revenues, but 
the direct management was in the hands of a Superin- 
tendent, chosen by the people for a term of four years ; 
this office was held by Aristldes. The revenue consisted 
in rents, duties, tribute from subject states, fines, liturgies 
(§ 103), and on extraordinary occasions in a direct tax, 
el<r<fiopd. For this purpose the people were divided into 
symmories resembling those of the trierarchies (§ 103). 

V For Military Affairs, see § 119. 



76 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

II. SPARTA. 

105. The Lacedaemonians were divided into two classes ; 
the Spartans, or Doric conquerors, and the Pei'iceci, UepiotKoi, 
who were free, but without the full rights of citizenship. 
Later, a distinction arose among the Spartans, as some 
were unable from poverty to furnish their proportion to 
the Syssitia or public tables. Those who fulfilled these 
requirements, and were brought up according to the pre- 
scribed forms, were termed "Ofiotoi (peers). The slaves 
were called Helots. 

106. Kings. 

There were two kings, descended from the two Heraclid 
(see Chronology, B. C. 1104) brothers, Procles and Eurys- 
thenes. They had little power beyond presiding in the 
Council, and commanding in war. 

107. Ephors. 

Five in number, entering upon their office at the autum- 
nal equinox ; the method of their election is unknown. 
They had very extensive judicial power, even over the 
kings, and gradually acquired the supreme executive power, 
two of them generally accompanying the king on his cam- 
paigns. The first of the five gave his name to the year. 

108. Council, Tepova-ia. 

Established by Lycurgus, consisting of 28 men, none 
of whom could be under 60. It took the initiative in all 
legislation, and exercised judicial functions. 



GKECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 77 

109. Assembly. 'EKKkrjaia. 
Every citizen of 30 years could take part. It had the 
power to vote (but without discussion) upon propositions 
of the kings or council ; this vote was taken by acclama- 
tion. 

110. Education. 

Every child was taken from his parents and educated 
by the state, the only aim being to make vigorous and 
skilful soldiers. Reading and writing were confined to 
what was absolutely indispensable, but music was much 
cultivated within certain traditional limits. 

%* For Military Affairs, see § 120. 



LU. AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL. 

111. An assembly originating in pre-historic times, and 
composed of deputies from 12 tribes; each tribe, whatever 
the number or. size of the cities which represented it, hav- 
ing two members. Thus Sparta, a Doric state, had no 
more power to cast the Dorian vote than Doris or Cni- 
dus. Meetings were held in the spring at Delphi, in the 
temple of Apollo ; in the autumn, at Thermopylae, in the 
temple of Demeter. Originally it was a sort of religious 
partnership, and was valuable as a bond of union between 
the tribes. Its most important functions were to act as 



78 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

guardians of the Delphian temple, and preside over the 
Pythian Games (§ 113); but it usurped at various times 
authority over the political and social interests of the states? 
and its influence was felt throughout Greece to a late 
period, often seriously for evil. 



IV. GAMES AND FESTIVALS. 
National. 

112. Olympic Games. — At Olympia, in honor of Zeus. 
They were held once in four years (TrevTaerrjpis), at the first 
full moon after the summer solstice (Attic month Heca- 
tombseon, § 203), continuing five days. The prize was a 
crown of wild olive. The contests consisted of foot, horse, 
and chariot races, wrestling, boxing, etc. The Pentathlon 
■ — consisting of leaping (aXfia), running (8p6pos), throwing 
the quoit (SiVkos) and spear (cikovtiov), and wrestling (71-0X77) 
— was a principal feature. 

113. Pythian Games, — At Delphi, in honor of Apollo ; 
held in the latter part of the summer, in the third year 
of every Olympiad. The prize was a laurel chaplet. 
Musical and artistic contests were especially encouraged 
in these games. 

114 Nemean Games. — At Nemea, in honor of Zeus; 
in the spring of the first and the summer of the fourth 
year of each Olympiad. The prize was a wreath of olive, 
afterwards of parsley. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 79 

115. Isllimian Games. — Near Corinth, in honor of Po- 
seidon ; in the middle of summer, in the first and third 
year of each Olympiad. The prize was a chaplet of ivy, 
later of pine. 

Local. 

116. Athenian. 

Month (§203). 

Hecat. — Panathenflea. — To Athena ; 25th to 28th days, 
the third year of every Olympiad. 
The Lesser Panathencea came yearly. 
Boedr. — Eleusinia. — Mysteries of Demeter (§ 27), in 

Eleusis ; continuing twelve days. 
Pyan. _ Theseia. — Festival of Theseus (§ 39); 8th day. 
Tliesmophoria. — To Demeter; 11th to 13th. 
Apaturia. — Of most of the Ionians. Festival of 

(ppdrpiai (§ 89), etc. 

Poseid. — Dionysia (§ 28) piKpd or tear aypovs. (Origin of 
Comedy.) 

Gam. — Lensca. — 11th to 13th. — Second festival of Dio- 
nysus. 

Anth. — Antliesteria, — 11th to 13th. — Third of the Dio- 
nysiac festivals. 

Elaph. — Dioiiysia peydXa or iv aarei. — 9th to 15th. (Ori- 
gin of Tragedy.) 

117. Other Parts of Greece. 

Attica. — Brauronia. — At Brauron, to Artemis (§ 7), once 
in four years. 



80 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 

Thebes. — Daplllieplioria. — In honor of Apollo, every 

ninth year. 
Platcea. — EleiltllCria. — Commemorative of the victory ; 

once in four years. 
Argos. — Herrca or Hecatomba:a. — To Hera (§ 3) ; once 

in four years, with games. 
Epidaurus. — Asclepiea. — To Asclepios (§ 16), once in four 

years. 
Arcadia. — LyCfta. — On M. Lycaeus, in honor of Zeus 

(§ 2) ; very ancient. 
Laconia. — Hyacilltllia. — At Amyclas, to Apollo (§ 6) ; 

at midsummer, for three days. 
Delos. — Delia. — Every four years, in honor of Apollo 

and Artemis. 
Ionia. — Panionia. — At Mt. Mycale, to Poseidon (§ 20). 



V. COLONIES. 

118. These were of two kinds : — 1. 'Anouciai, which were 
entirely independent of the mother city, n^TponoXis. 2. KX77- 
povxlai, in which the colonists still remained citizens of the 
metropolis (cf. Roman Colonies, § 151). The former took 
with them sacred fire from the Prytaneum (§ 89) of the 
metropolis, the latter considered the original fire in the 
Prytaneum as still their own. 



GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 81 



VI. MILITARY. 



\ 

il9. The characteristic feature of the Grecian military 

was the Phalanx, or compact body of soldiers. Of the 
Athenian army we only know that the heavy-armed sol- 
diers, orrXlrac, were divided into rd£eis and Xo^ot, the cavalry 
into l\u. Ten generals, arpaTiryol, were chosen annually to 
commai^. the army ; under them were ten ra^lapxoi for the 
foot, and: two "nnrapxoi for the cavalry. By the reforms of 
Iphicratefc, shortly after the Peloponnesian War, the light- 
armed troops, TreXraa-Tai, acquired greater importance. 

120. Tie Spartan army, comprising all the citizens 
between 20 and 60, was divided into six [xopai, each com- 
manded by aPoIemarch. To each fiopa there were 4 Xoxot, 
8 TrevTTjKoaTvesi and 16 €vo>fxoTiai. Each of these divisions 
contained cava\ry as well as infantry ; their strength when 
in actual service seems to have varied. There were also 
300 knights, 'nrnSs, forming a body-guard for the king. 

121. The Macedonian phalanx was distinguished by 
its immobility. V*ry long spears were used, those of the 
fifth rank projecting three feet in front of the first rank. 



ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 



I. DIVISIONS OF THE PEOPLE. 

122. The Patricians were citizens in full rigli 7 ; the Ple- 
beians were inferior, and, to a certain extent, subject, until 
equality was established by the Licinian Laws. B. C. 367. 
The Roman people in their civil capacity wer« called Qui- 
rites. The body of citizens, originally the Paricians alone, 
were called Populus (cf. Arjpos, § 90). 

123. The Patricians were originally dhided into three 
tribes, — the Ramnes (Latin), Tities (Sabiie), and LUCCIXS 
(perhaps Etruscan), — but these divisions were of no his- 
torical importance. Each tribe was divided into ten Curift, 
at the head of each of which was a Cirio. 

124. The city was also divided hto four local tribes, 
Suburana, Esquilina, Collina, and Palaina. As the territory 

was extended, thirty-one country trbes were added. The 
city tribes were the least respectnole. 

125. For military purposes, thi citizens were divided by 
King Servius Tullius into five CliSSes (cf. § 91), according to 
wealth, and these into 193 CeitUl'ies, the whole people thus 
forming the army (cf. § 12-)). The census of the first 



ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 83 

class was 100,000 asses (§ 198), and of the others, 75,000, 
50,000, 25,000, and 11,000 asses. The first class contained 
80 centuries, the fifth 30, the others 20 each ; half of these 
centuries consisted of senior es (over 45 years of age), the 
rest of juniores. There were also 18 centuries of Equites 
equo publico (having a horse assigned by the state), who 
had the census of the first class ; four centuries of workmen ; 
and one of poor citizens, capite censi. 

126. After the equalization of the Patricians and Ple- 
beians, a new aristocracy grew up, of the Nobtles. The 
JVovi homines, of whom were Marius and Cicero, were those 
none of whose ancestors had held curule office (§ 129). 
— The Optimates and Populares were the members of the 
conservative and radical parties. — The Equestrian Order, 
Ordo Equestris, was an aristocracy of wealth, brought into 
existence by the legislation of C. Gracchus (§ 171), B. C. 
121, and generally hostile to the Senate. 

127. The people were also divided into Gentes, the mem- 
bers of which claimed a common origin, and had common 
sacra, or sacred rites. The nomen of every man was that 
of his gens, which always ended in ius (except a few Etrus- 
can names in na) ; the proenomen was the individual 
name, the cognomen that of the family; the agnomen was 
a personal name acquired by some exploit; e. g. Publius 
Cornelius Scipio Africanus. Women were called simply 
by the name of the gens, as Cornelia ; the daughters being 
distinguished as prima, secunda, &c. 

128. There was also a peculiar personal relation be- 
tween a patrician or nobleman as Patron, and his Clients. 



84 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

The patron was the legal representative and the defender 
of life clients, who in turn owed him aid and service. — 
Manumitted slaves were called Liberti in relation to their 
former master, or Libertilli as a class ; they continued to owe 
service to their former master as patron. Legally, slaves 
could hold no property, but they were permitted by usage 
to keep a part of their earnings, called Peculium. 



II. MAGISTRATES. 



129. After the expulsion of the kings, B. C. 509, Rome 
was a Republic. The magistrates were chosen annually, 
with the exception of the Censors and Dictators. They are 
divided into Greater and Lesser, according as they possessed 
the greater or lesser auspices (§ 146). — The Clll'llle Magis- 
trates had the right to use the Sella curults, or curule chair 
of ivory; all of these were Greater Magistrates (Majores), 
except the Curule iEdiles (§ 134). — All of these magis- 
trates were absolute, each in his sphere, during their term 
of office, but liable to be called to account at its close. 
They received a religious consecration, and could not le- 
gally be deposed. The same person might hold civil, mili- 
tary, naval, judicial, and religious offices. The word facer e 
was used of the people, creare of the magistrate who presided 
at the comitia when the choice was made. 



ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 85 

1. Greater Magistrates. 

130. Consuls. Two in number, having the chief executive 
power. They went into office, in the 3d cent. B. C, on the 
Ides of March, but after B. C. 153 (inclusive), on- the 
Kalends of January. 43 was the legal age for holding the 
office. Each Consul was preceded in public by 12 Lictors 
with axes in bundles of rods (fasces). If the term of office 
of the Consuls expired before their successors were elected, 
the Patrician part of the Senate chose an Interrex, whose 
office lasted only five days, when he created a second, whose 
duty it was to hold the election. Sometimes several inter- 
reges succeeded before a Consul could be chosen. After 
the term of office of the Consul expired, he was often sent 
as Proconsul to govern a Province ; and by Sulla (B. C. 82) 
it was made the law that the Consuls should be so sent, while 
during their year of office they should remain in Italy. 

131. PrSBtors. At first one, afterwards two, then six in 
number, increased by Sulla to eight ; they must be 40 years 
of age. They exercised judicial powers ; the Prcetor Ul'ba- 
nUS between citizens, the Peregrinus (cf. Archon Polemarch, 
§ 94) for foreigners ; the others originally held command in 
the Provinces, but afterwards presided over special courts, 
Qucestiones (§ 171). They were sent as Tropraetors to rule 
the Provinces after their term of office expired. 

132. Censors. Two in number, chosen once in five years, 
for a term of eighteen months. They held a census of the 
people in the Campus Martius, decided upon their citizen- 
ship, made out the list of the members of the Senate, and 



86 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

had a general supervision of the morals of the state, with 
power to inflict disgraceful punishments (see § 161). They 
also farmed out the public revenues (§ 172), and conducted 
the most important public works, such as the building of 
aqueducts and military roads. 

133. Dictator. Appointed in time of need for a term of 
six months, and possessing kingly powers in full: the Ma- 
gister Equitlim was his second in command. He was accom- 
panied by twenty-four Lictors. After the second Punic 
war the office disappeared, its place being taken by the 
dictatorial powers conferred by the Senate upon the Consuls, 
in the formula, Videant consuks ne quid respublica detri- 
menti capiat. 

2. Lesser Magistrates. 

134. JMileS. Two Curule and two Plebeian, forming 
one board, with the general superintendence of the police, 
the public buildings, the games, &c. The Curule ^Edileship 
could not be held before the age of 37. 

135. QuftStors, The number was gradually increased 
from two to forty; they had the charge of the finances. 
The Treasury, uffirarium, was in the Temple of Saturn. 

136. Tribunes Of the People. Five, then ten in number; 
entering upon office the fourth day before the Ides of Decem- 
ber. The office was established at the first secession of the 
Plebeians, B. C. 494, to defend them (Auxiliuni) against 
the arrogance of the Patricians. The Tribunes were invio- 
lable, sacrosancti, and practically irresponsible. They had 
the Intercession or right of "Veto" upon any action of a 



ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 87 

magistrate within the city (except the Dictator), the power 
to fine or imprison factious opponents, and the right of 
holding the Comitia Tributa (§ 142), agere cum plebe ; they 
also acquired the right of sitting in the Senate. Their 
powers were greatly reduced by Sulla, but afterwards in a 
measure restored. Their attendants were called Viators. 

137. Triumviri Capitales or Nocturni. The police officers 
of the city. — The attendants of the magistrates were called 
ApparitOlTS, including Lictors (§ 130), Viators (§ 136), 
Heralds, Scribes, &c. 

3. The Empire. 

138. Under the Empire the magistrates of the Republic 
continued as mere forms ; the chief executive officers, ap- 
pointed at will by the Emperor, were: — 1. tafectUS Mi, 
who had the charge of the public order, acquiring in time the 
whole criminal jurisdiction. 2. PrftfeclUS Pnetorii, generally 
two in number, having command of the Praetorian Cohorts 
(§ 159). The Imperial Treasury was called Fiscus. 



III. ASSEMBLIES. 



139. The Senate, at first an advisory body, came to be 
the ruling power in the state, the Consuls being only its 
instruments. All matters of finance, of war, of provincial 
administration, and the initiative in legislative action, be- 
longed to it. The members were chosen by the Censor- 



88 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

from among those who had held curule offices, but by 
Sulla's laws the holding of the Qusestorship and any higher 
office entitled to a seat for life. The normal number was 
considered 300 ; but after Sulla it varied with the number 
of those who had held magistracies. The leading man in 
the Senate, as determined by the Censors, was called Prin- 
ceps Senatus. A vote passed by the Senate was called 
Auctoritas ; when drawn up in legal form, Senatus-consultum. 
It usually met in the Curia Hostilia, or in some temple. 

140. Comitia Cliriata, or Assembly of the Curia? (§ 123). 
These were early superseded in their political functions by 
the Comitia Centuriata (§ 141), but were kept up until late 
times for Patrician purposes, such as Adoption, Arrogatio. 
The Imperium, or military power, could be conferred only 
by them, in the Lex Curiata de Imperio, for which purpose 
they were represented by 30 Lictors. — The Comitia Calata 
were also organized by Curiae, but were entirely passive, 
being called together by the pontifices (§ 143) to witness 
wills, be present at the inauguration of the rex (§ 147) and 
flamens (§ 148), &c. 

141. Comitia Centuriata, or Assembly of the Centuries 
(§ 125), held in the Campus Martius, (because, being the 
army, it could not meet within the city walls,) and presided 
over by the Consul. Most of the legislation, and the elec- 
tion of the chief magistrates, belonged to this assembly. 
In the 3d cent. B. C. a reconstruction of the centuries took 
place, by which, probably, each class (§ 125) received equal 
power, having two centuries (one of seniores, one ofjimiores) 
from each of the 35 tribes (§ 124). The authority of the 



ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 89 

Senate was necessary in order to propose a law (rogare 
or ferre legem), which, until passed, was called rogatio ; the 
people voted with tablets marked U for uti rogas (yes) and 
A for antiquo (no). 

142. The Comitia Tributa were the Assembly of the 35 
Tribes (§ 124), each of which had an equal vote. They 
chose the Lesser Magistrates, later also the Priests, and 
acquired by degrees a large share of legislative power. A 
law passed by this assembly was called Plebiscltum ; after 
B. C. 286 a Plebiscltum had the force of a Lex. 



IV. PRIESTHOODS. 

1. The Great Colleges. 

%* These, with the exception of the Epulones, were at 
first restricted to the Patricians, but afterwards thrown open 
to the Plebeians also. 

143. The Pontifices, eight in number, increased by Sulla 
to fifteen ; at their head the Pontifex MaximilS. They formed 
the most important of these bodies, being the acknowledged 
head of the Roman religion, and having authority over all 
the other priesthoods. They had power to decide on the 
legality of any measure or proceeding, and a control over 
the ritual of the state. 

144. The Epulones, originally three, increased by Sulla to 
seven. They had the charge of the sacred feasts, the chief 
of which was that of Jupiter Capitolinus (§ 173). 

5 



90 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

145. The Decemviri sacris faciundis, increased by Sulla to 
fifteen (Quindecimviri). They had the care of the Sibylline 
Books, which they consulted in all public exigencies. 

146. The AuglU'S, nine in number, made fifteen by Sulla. 
They had the interpretation of the Auspices ; viz. ex ccelo 
(thunder and lightning) ; ex avibus (called oscines when they 
sang, allies when they flew) ; ex tripudiis (from the feeding 
of chickens) ; ex quadrupedibus ; and ex dirts (from prodi- 
gies). The auspices (greater or lesser) "belonged to the 
magistrates (see § 129), but were interpreted by the augurs, 
who thus acquired great political influence, being able even 
to break up the Comitia, or declare their action void. — The 
Haruspices were an inferior body, originally Etruscan, who 
examined the entrails of the beasts sacrificed, and explained 
prodigies and lightning. 

2. The Patrician Colleges. 

147. The Rex Sacrificulus (cf. King Archon, § 94) had 
the highest rank in the state, but no political power. He 
was appointed after the expulsion of the kings, to perform 
the religious rites which had belonged to them. 

148. The Flamens were priests devoted to the service of 
some special deity. They were fifteen in number, at the 
head of whom stood the Flamen Dialis (of Jupiter), Mar- 
tialis (of Mars), and Quirinalis (of Quirinus). 

149. The Salii were priests of Mars Gradlvus (§ 60), 
twelve in number, having charge of the Ancilia or sacred 
shields. They made an annual procession (§ 173), leaping, 
singing, and beating the shields with rods. 



KOMAN ANTIQUITIES. 91 

150. Fetiales (§ 71), twenty in number, the chief being 
called Pater Patratus. They had the care of the public 
faith, performed the ceremonies at the declaration of war, 
&c. In later times, Plebeians of high rank seem to have 
been admitted into the College. 



V. COLONIES, &c. 



151. Roman Colonies were composed of Roman citizens, 
who were provided with land (from 1£ to 7 jugera, § 189) 
in a conquered country, without losing their citizenship. 

152. Latin Colonies were military posts, composed of 
Latins or of Romans who were willing to lose a portion 
of their civic rights in consideration of a grant of land. 
They had a quasi independence, but stood in a relation of 
inferiority. Only four were sent out after the Second Punic 
War, their place being then taken by Roman Colonies, 
which had before fallen into disuse. 

153. Municipia. These were Italian towns which re- 
ceived Roman citizenship (§ 161) in whole or in part. In 
the last century of the republic the term was applied also 
to colonies. — The Prarfectura was a town whose laws were 
administered by a Prefect sent out by the Roman Praetor. 
— Villages and smaller towns were called Fora (market- 
towns), Conciliabula, Vici, and Castella. 

154. Provinces. These were conquered countries, ruled 
as subject, paying tribute, and governed at first by Prae- 



92 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

tors, afterwards by Proconsuls and Propraetors (§§ 130, 
131). Augustus divided them into Senatorial and Impe- 
rial, the latter being those which required military adminis- 
tration (see p. 24). 



VI. MILITARY AFFAIRS. 
1. Before Marius. 

155. The Legion consisted of 4200 men, — 1200 hastati, 
young men; 1200 principes, middle-aged men; and 600 triarii, 
or veterans; to whom were added 1200 veliles, or light- 
armed: there were, besides, 300 equites, or cavalry. The 
hastati formed the front line, the principes the second, while 
the triarii were a reserve. The command of the legion was 
held by six tribuni militum, two months by each in turn. 

156. The infantry of each legion w r as divided into 30 ma- 
niples, ten to each line, each maniple consisting of two centu- 
ries, among which the velites were equally distributed, 20 
to each century. Thus, of the hastati and principes each 
maniple contained 120 heavy-armed soldiers and 40 velites, 
forming 20 in front and 8 deep (the century having 10 men 
in front) ; while the maniple of the triarii contained only 
60 heavy-armed soldiers and 40 velites. Each century was 
commanded by a centurion, the centurio prior (of the right- 
hand century) commanding the whole maniple. The centu- 
rion of the first (right-hand) century of the triarii was 
called primiptlus. — The equites were divided into 10 turma?. 



ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 93 

157. The heavy-armed soldiers were clad in the brazen 
helmet (cassis), shield (scutum), cuirass (lorica or thorax), 
and greaves (ocrece) ; they carried the short two-edged Span- 
ish sword (/xdxaipa), and a javelin (pilum), in place of which 
last, the triarii carried a spear (hasta). The velites wore a 
leathern helmet (galea), and carried a buckler (parma), 
Spanish sword, and several darts (hastce velitdres). 

2. Reform of Marius. 

158. This consisted in substituting the organization by 
Cohorts for that by maniples. The division into hastati, &c. 
(§ 155) was given up, and the legion contained only in- 
fantry, the cavalry being furnished by the allies as auxil- 
iaries. The legion consisted therefore of 10 cohorts of 
three maniples each. Each maniple had 20 men in front 
by 10 deep, so that the cohort contained 600 men, the 
legion 6,000. All the legionary soldiers were in full armor, 
carrying the Spanish sword and the pilum. The silver 
eagle was now made the standard of the legion. 



159. The Praetorian Cohort was a select body of men 
acting as body-guard to the commander. Under the Em- 
pire the Praetorian Cohorts formed a standing army stationed 
at Rome, where they had an immense camp. It came in 
time to be the ruling power in the state. 

160. The camp was made in the form of a rectangle, 
with two streets running at right angles through the middle 
point, groma. At the points where these touched the walls 



94 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

were the four gates, the decumana, turned from the enemy, 
the prSEtoria, towards the enemy, and the principalis dextra 
and sinistra, at the right and left hand; the front part 
of the camp being where the legionary soldiers were 
posted, — towards the decumana. The PrSBtorium, or bead- 
quarters, was in the same part, in the middle of the chief 
street. 

160^. After a successful campaign in a legitimate war, 
justum helium, against foreign foes, in which the dominion 
of the state had been extended, and 5,000 of the enemy slain 
in & single battle, the Imperator received by decree of the 
Senate the honor of a Triumph. He entered the city in a 
splendid procession, at the head of his army, and proceeded 
to the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus to offer sacrifice. — The 
Ovation was an inferior kind of Triumph. 



VII. LAW. 



161. Civitas. Full citizenship, Jus Quiritium (§ 122), 
consisted in, — 1. Public rights, i. e. (1.) Jus Suffragii, 
the right of voting; (2.) Honor um, of holding office; 
(3.) Provocations (§ 162); and 2. Private rights, i. e. 
(4.) Connubii, of intermarriage, and (5.) Commercii, of 
trade. — The civil condition of a man was called his caput ; 
capitis deminutio was any loss of citizenship in whole or \n 
part. In tabulas Gcerltum referri, or to become an ^Erarius, 
was to lose the right of suffrage ; tribu moveri seems to signify 



ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 95 

to be transferred to a less honorable tribe (§ 124), a punish- 
ment often inflicted by the Censors (§ 132). 

162. Provocate. The right of appeal to the people from 
the decision of any magistrate (except in early times the 
Dictator, § 133), in cases in which the punishment was 
death, scourging, and afterwards heavy fines. This was 
looked upon as the bulwark of Roman liberty. Appellatio 
was the appeal to one magistrate from the decisions of 
another. 

163. Twelve Tables. The laws made by the Decemvirs, 
B. C. 451, after an examination of Grecian institutions. 
These formed the foundation of Roman law; many ame- 
liorations of the ancient severity were introduced (see 
§§ 164, 165). 

164. Matrimonium. The Patrician marriage was by con- 
far reatio, in which a cake made of spelt, far, was car- 
ried before the bride. The wife came thus into the manus 
or unlimited power of the husband. — By the laws of the 
Twelve Tables (§ 163), marriage by usus, or cohabitation, 
was made valid; but by passing once a year a space of 
three nights (Tvinoctium) out of her husband's house, the 
wife avoided the manus. — Another method was c o e m p t i o , 
or purchase by mancipatio (§ 166). 

165. Patl'ia Potestas. The son as well as the wife was in 
the manus (§ 164) of the Paterfamilias, which gave 
power of life and death. By the Twelve Tables (§ 163) 
he could escape the manus by being thrice sold as a slave 
and emancipated (manu mittere) ; the first two times he 
returned into his father's manus, the third he remained free. 



96 KOMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

This Patria Potestas extended to all sons, with their families, 
and all unmarried daughters. 

166. Mancipatio. A formal sale, made in the presence 
of five or more witnesses. It was employed in the sale of 
res mancipi, i. e. real estate, slaves, cattle, and children ; 
other property being res nee mancipi. By this process Qui- 
ritarian ownership (dominium ex jure Quiritium) was con- 
veyed. 

167. NeXlim. A contract for debt, entered into by for- 
malities similar to those of mancipatio (§ 166), by which 
on non-payment, with interest commonly at ten per cent, the 
debtor came into the creditor's power, who could make him 
work for him, keep him in chains, sell him into foreign 
lands {trans Tiberim), or put him to death. An Addictus 
was one who came into the relation of servitude to his 
creditor by regular process of law. The Nexus and Ad- 
dictus were not slaves, but in a servile condition. — MutUMll 
was a contract for debt resting on the mere transfer of 
money from one to another. 

168. Agrarian Laws. The public land obtained by con- 
quest was under the management of the Senate, and usually 
divided among its members for a low rent. This was 
called Occupatio; the property of the land still remained 
in the state, but the occupiers came in time to consider it 
as their own, and it was bought and sold as such. The 
object of the various agrarian laws was to give the public 
land, in patches of generally seven jugera (§ 189), to the 
poorer citizens; this was called Assign atio. Tiberius 
Gracchus carried such a law, B. C. 133. 



ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 97 

169. Sumptuary Laws. Laws passed at various times to 
check the growth of luxury, by prohibiting display and 
lavish expenditures. 

170. Parricidium, originally the murder of a parent, came 
by degrees to signify any murder. — ProditiO, treason, was 
aid given to a foreign enemy. — Perduellio, such hostile ac- 
tions as endangered the institutions of the state, such as 
usurpation of kingly authority (Sp. Cassius), interference 
with the rights of the Tribunate (Ti. Gracchus), &c. Such 
crimes came under the laws de Majestate (i. e. anything 
touching the sovereignty of the state). 

171. Courts. The Praetors (§ 131) conducted trials, 
as well criminal as civil. Qucestiones Perpetuce, or special 
criminal courts, were established, the first for Extortion 
(Res Repetundm), B. C. 149 ; others for Bribery, Treason, 
Adultery, Counterfeiting, &c. — The court of the CentUDlviri 
(three from each tribe, § 134) had jurisdiction in cases of 
inheritance. — The judges (judices) in the Quastiones, ordi- 
nary or special, were originally taken from the Senators ; by 
a law of C. Gracchus, B. C. 121, from the Equestrian Order 
(§ 126) ; Sulla restored the privilege to the Senators; and 
a law, B. C. 70, enacted that they should be taken equally 
from Senators, Equites, and Tribuni Mrarii (§ 172). — 
Diem dicere signified to charge a person with any crime, 
and appoint a day for bringing the matter to trial. The 
judges voted with tablets marked A for absolvo, C for con- 
demno, and N L for non liquet. 

172. Ee venue. This was derived chiefly from the prov- 
inces, and was managed by the Censors (§ 132). The 
5* 



98 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 

public domain, consisting of arable and pasture lands and 
mines, metalla, was let. (The rent of the pasture-lands, 
pascua, was called scriptura.) Besides this, the provinces 
paid a fixed sum, stipendium, to the treasury. But Sicily 
and Asia, instead of the stipendium, paid vectigalia, con- 
sisting chiefly of the tithes, decuma, on agricultural produce: 
the collecting of these was let out to publicani. — The Tl'i- 
blltum was an extraordinary property tax (cf. eiV^opa, 
§ 104) on Roman citizens, paid back when the exigency 
was passed. It was raised in the Tribes (§ 124), by officers 
called Tribuni- JErarii. The Vicesima was a tax of twenty 
per cent on inheritances and manumissions. The harbor 
duties were called Portorium. 



VIII. FESTIVALS. 
173. Feri^: Stativ^e. Fixed Festivals. 

Mar. 1.— Kal. Mar. — Procession of the Salii (§ 149) 

to Mars Gradlvus (§ 57), 
continuing several days. 
" 17. — 16 Kal. Apr. — Libcralia, to Liber (§ 64), toga 

virilis (§ 184) assumed. 

Apr. 21.— 11 Kal. Mai. — Palilia, to Pales (§ 74); found- 
ing of the city. 

May 1.— Kal. Mai. — Festival of Bona Dea (§ 72) 

by the women. 
[ Ambarvalia; Procession of the 



" 17. — 16 Kal. Jun. or 
« 27.— 6 " 



Fratrcs Arvales to bless the 
fields. 



ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 99 

July 6. — Prid. Non. Jul. — Ludi Apollinares, lasting 8 days. 
" 15. — Id. Jul. — Transvedio Equitum, annual pro- 

cession of the knights (§ 125) 
in honor of Castor and Pol- 
lux (§ 82). 

Aug. 21. — 12 Kal. Sept.— Consualia, to Consus (§ 62). 

Rape of the Sabines. 

Sept. 15. — 17 Kal. Oct. — Ludi Romani or Maxirai (Circen- 

ses) ; for five days. 

Nov. 14. — 18 Kal. Dec — Epulum Jovis in Capitolio (§ 144). 
" 15. — 17 Kal. Dec. — Ludi Plebeii (Circenses), lasting 3 

days. 
Dec. 17. — 16 Kal. Jan. — Saturnalia, to Saturn (§ 70), 

lasting 3 days. 
Feb. 15. — 15 Kal. Mar. — Lupercalia, feast of purification 

(§ 74). 
" 17. — 13 Kal. Mar. — Quirinalia, the disappearance of 

Romulus. 
» 23. — 7 Kal. Mar. — Tcrminalia, to Terminus (§ 66) ; 

riginally the end of the 
year ; boundaries re-estab- 
lished. 
" 24.— (§ 206.) — Regifugium, to celebrate the ex- 
pulsion of the kings. 

174. The FeriSB Latillffi, an annual ceremony of great 
solemnity, were Ferice Conceptivce, i. e. on a day appointed 
by the consuls. The Ludi Ssculares, in honor of Apollo, 
were celebrated once in a hundred years. 



MISCELLANEOUS 



* # * We present a general view of the parts of the ship., house, 
dress, &c., giving the Greek and Roman names side by side. 

175. Ship, Navis, NaOs. 

Prow, prora, 7rp6jpa. Stern, puppis, Trpvpvr). 

Beak, rostrum, ep,j3okos. Rudder, gubernaculum, 7rt]bd\iov. 

Mast, malus, ?<ttos. Sail, velum, lo-riov. 

Yard, antenna, nepas. Oars, remi, Kionai. 

Deck, KaTaarpcopa. Keel, carina, rpoms. 

Anchor, ancora, ayicvpa. Sheets, pedes, nodes. 

The Cheniscus, x nv ' L(TK0S i was an ornament at the prow, 
the Aplustre, a(p\ao-Tov, at the stern. The larger ropes were 
called funes, axoivia ; the smaller, ron-eia. 

176. Ships were named from the number of banks of 
oars, Moneres, Biremes, Triremes, &c. The Trireme was 
chiefly used during the height of Grecian power, the Qirin- 
quereme during the Roman period. 

177. House, Domus, OiVa. 

The peculiarity of the Greek house was its division 
into two portions, the Andronitis for the men, and the 



MISCELLANEOUS. 101 

Gynseconitis for the women; the former was towards 
the front. The principal feature of both Roman and 
Grecian houses was the large hall, Atrium or Cavse- 
d i u m, avXrj, open to the air. In this the Roman received 
his friends; here were the images of his household gods, 
simulacra, and of his ancestors, imagines. The opening 
in the roof above was called Compluvium: in the Tus- 
can Atrium (the earliest style) this was formed simply 
by the beams of the house ; otherwise it was supported 
by pillars. The Impluvium was a cistern in the floor, 
to catch the rain. About the Atrium were the various 
rooms. The Triclinium was the dining-room, in which 
couches were placed about three sides of a table, and usu- 
ally three reclined upon each couch. 

Temple, Templum, Nea>9. 

178. The principal apartment of the Temple was the 
Cella, Nao'y ; in large temples there was also a vestibule, 
Upovaos, and chamber in the rear, SmaOodoiios, in which the 
treasures were kept. Temples, like houses (§ 177), were 
usually lighted by an opening in the roof, vnaiOpov ; hence 
called hypcethral. Th'ey commonly had columns in front, 
at both ends, or all around (a peristyle), when they were 
called peripteral. The number of columns in front was 
regularly even, from two to ten in number ; on the side, the 
Greek temples had twice as many columns as in front, and 
one more ; e. g. the Parthenon (100 feet wide), being octa- 
style, had 17 columns along the side. Roman temples, on 
the other hand, had twice as many intercolumniations on the 



102 MISCELLANEOUS. 

side as in front; thus, an octastyle temple, having 7 in- 
tercolumniations in front, had 14 on the side, and con- 
sequently 15 columns. There were also circular temples. 
Temples usually faced east or west. 

179. There were properly three orders of architecture : 
the Doric, distinguished for massiveness and simplicity ; the 
Ionic, for grace ; the Corinthian, for richness of ornamentation. 
The gable was called the Pediment, and the space between 
the pediment and columns the Entablature, which was divid- 
ed into the Cornice, jutting out just below the pediment, the 
Frieze, usually adorned with- sculpture, and the Architrave, 
resting immediately on the column. The frieze was in the 
Doric order divided by perpendicular mouldings, triglyphs, 
into spaces called metopes. — The Tuscan order was a modi- 
fication of the Doric ; the Composite, an inelegant mixture of 
Ionic and Corinthian, used in Rome during the Empire. 

Theatre. 

180. The Theatre was divided into the Stage, Orchestra 
(corresponding to our parquet), and Cavea, koiKov. The 
Scena, o-ktjvt}, was the wall back of the stage, on which was 
the scenery of the play, the curtain rising immediately in 
front of it. The stage proper was called Proscenium, and 
was always in view of the spectators. The Orchestra was 
used in Greek theatres for the chorus, and contained the 
6vfj.eXrj, an altar of Dionysus. In Roman theatres it was 
occupied by Senators and other distinguished persons. The 
Cavea was formed of concentric rows of seats, rising one 
above another, with parallel passages called prcecinctiones, 



MISCELLANEOUS. 103 

8ia£a>naTa, and divided by transverse stairways into wedge- 
shaped compartments called cunei. In the Grecian theatre 
the orchestra formed a complete circle, in the Roman, only 
a semicircle. 

181. Amphitheatres were elliptical in shape, the cavea 
beinsr divided in the same general manner as in theatres. 
The central part was called the arena, and was used for 
gladiatorial combats ; sometimes it was flowed with water 
for the exhibition of mock sea-fights. -It was surrounded 
by a massive wall of masonry : above this was a balcony, 
called the podium, where the Emperor and other distin- 
guished persons sat. — When the people wished the life 
of a vanquished gladiator saved, they turned their thumbs 
down ; when one was wounded, they cried out, " Habet." 

182. Plough, Aratrum, "Aporpov. 

Yoke, jugum, £vy6v. Mould-boards, aures. 

Pole, te?no, pvp.6s. Coulter, culler. 

Share, vomer, vvvis- Share-beam, dentcde, %\vpa. 

Handle, stiva, e'xeVX?; (held with the right hand). 
Plough-tail, buris, yvrjs (with the left). 

Dress. 

183. The chief article of dress was the tunic, x«w; the 
Doric chiton had no sleeves, and reached about to the knees ; 
the Ionic had sleeves, and reached to the feet. The tunic 
was fastened round the waist with a girdle, zona, (wvrj; 
long tunics and sleeves were thought effeminate. 

184. The peculiar Roman dress w r orn over this was the 



104 MISCELLANEOUS. 

toga {gens togata), a long rounded shawl, thrown over both 
shoulders, but in such a manner that it could fall down in 
front, its folds forming the sinus, and leave the right arm 
free. The toga virllis, assumed by young men at the age 
of 16 (§ 64), was of the natural color of the wool ; while that 
of candidates for office, toga Candida, was whitened artifi- 
cially. The toga prcetexta had a broad purple border, latus 
clavus ; it was worn by children and the higher magistrates. 
Matrons wore the stola, reaching to the feet, instead of the 
toga. The Greeks wore in its place the pallium, I/jlcltiov, 
which was rectangular, or the xAa/zu's (scarf), which was 
oblong, and more delicate than the pallium. — The paluda- 
mentum was the military cloak worn by officers, the sagum 
being that of the common soldiers and of the northern 
nations ; the pcenula was a travelling-cloak. 

185. Braccce (trousers) were only worn by barbarians 
{Galli braccati). — Sandals, solea, or sandalium, <rdp8d\ov, 
and shoes, calceus, vnodrjixa, were w r orn on the feet; the 
shoes of Senators were adorned with a small crescent. — On 
the head was worn a felt cap, pileus, mXos, or hat, petasus, 
ireracros. 



TABLES. 



*%* In these tables the modern values are given approximately, 
for loose and ordinary calculation. The decimal system generally 
prevailed in Greece, the duodecimal in Italy. 



MEASURES OF LENGTH. 

186. The unit of measure was the Foot, the Grecian 
being a little larger, the Roman a little smaller, than the 
English. 

Grecian. 

4 Finger-breadths, 



AaKTvkos, 


= 1 Palm, IlaXaia-Tr), 


= 3-f-in.. 


■ 3 Palms 


= 1 Span, Siridaprj, 


= 9+ in. 


4 Palms 


= 1 Foot, Ilovy, 


= 12.135 in. 


2 Spans 


= 1 Cubit, Tlrjxvs, 


= H+ft. 


2J Feet 


= 1 Step, Bfjpa, 


= 21+ ft. 


6 Feet 


= 1 Fathom, 'Opyvtd, 


= 6-f ft. 


10 Feet 


= 1 Calamus, KaXapos, 


= 10-fft. 


100 Feet 


= 1 Plethrum, TiXedpov, 


= 100-f- ft. 


6 Plethra 


= 1 Stadium, 2ra5ioz>, 


= 1 — furlong. 


30 Stadia 


= 1 Parasang, JJapaadyyijs 


, = 31— m. 



*#* The span was originally the distance from the tip of the thumb 
to that of the middle finger ; the cubit, from the elbow to the tip of the 
middle finger; the dpyvid, between the outstretched arms. 



106 TABLES. 

187. Roman. 

The true Roman subdivision of the foot was duodecimal, 
into 12 inches; but the Grecian measures, the finger-breadth 
(digitus) and palm (palmus), were also employed. 

12 Inches, Uncia, = 1 Foot, Pes, == 11.65 in. 



18 Inches 


= 1 Cubit, Cubitus, 


= 11- ft. 


21 Feet 


= 1 Step, Gradus, 


= 21— ft. 


5 Feet 


= 1 Pace, Passus, 


= 5— ft. 


10 Feet 


= 1 Decempeda 


= 10— ft. 


120 Feet 


= 1 Actus 


= 120— ft. 


000 Paces 


= 1 Miliarium (Mille p 


lassuum) = l — mile. 



MEASURES OF SURFACE. 



188. The Grecian unit was the Plethrum (the square 
of the linear Plethrum, § 186) ; the Roman, the Jugerum 
(twice the square of the Actus, § 187). 







Grecian. 




100 Square Feet 


= 


1 " kicaiva. 


= 100-j- ft. 


25 "AKaivciL 


= 


1 "Apovpa 


== 91-}- rods. 


4 "Apovpai 




1 UXedpov 

189. Roman. 


= 1 — rood. 


The Actus Simpl 


'ex was a strip of land 120 feet by 4. 


5 Actus 


= 


1 Uncia 


= 8-|- rods. 


1| Unciae 


= 


1 Clima 


= 1 2— j— rods. 


4 CMmata 


= 


1 Actus Quadratus = 1-}- rood. 


2 Actus Quadrati 








(12 Uncia-) 


= 


1 Jugerum 


= 2-j- roods. 


200 Jugera 


= 


1 Centuria 


= 124-f- acres. 



TABLES. 



107 



MEASUKES OF CAPACITY. 

190. The Grecian and Roman measures correspond so 
nearly that we give them side by side. The Oi/athus, 
KCa6os (i gill), is common to all. 



6 Cyathi 




Liquid. 

1 Hemina, KotuXt;, 


• = 


V-Pt- 


2 Heminae 


= 


1 Sextarius, Eeo-TT/s, 


== 


1— pt. 


6 Sextarii 


= 


1 Congius, Xovs, 


= 


3— qt. 


8 Congii 


= 


1 Roman Amphora 


= 


6— gal. 


12 Xoes 




1 'A/xcpopevs, or MerpjjT?)?, 

191. Dry. 




9— gal. 


6 Cyathi 


= 


1 Hemina, KotuXt;, 


= 


|-Pt- 


2 Heminae 


= 


1 Sextarius, Ee'orqs, 


= 


1-pt. 


2 SeVrat 


= 


1 XoIvi£ (only Greek) 


= 


1-qt. 


16 Sextarii 


= 


1 Modius, 'Ektcvs, 


= 


1 — peck 


6 'Enrels 




1 Mefii/xi/os (only Greek) 
WEIGHTS. 




\\— bu. 



192. The Roman pound, Libra, was about equal to three 
fourths of the Attic Mina. The values are given in terms 
of the Avoirdupois scale. 



6 Oboli 
100 Drachmae 
60 Minae 



Grecian. 

1 Drachma 
1 Mina 
1 Talent 



= 2-{- dr. 

= 1- lb. 

= 57 lb. 



108 MONEY. 

193. This table is that of the Attic silver weights, the 
Drachma = 66.5 Troy grains. This was the system most 
in use during the flourishing period of Greece. The values 
can be reduced to either of the other principal systems, 
according; to the following; ratios : — 



J c 



3 : 5 
72 : 100 
6 : 5 



Attic (Solonian) : JEginetan (Babylonian) 
Attic : Eubdic (Old Attic Ante-Solonian) 
JEginetan : Eubdic 

194. Roman. 

The unit was the As or Libra, divided into twelve ounces, 
Uncice. The aliquot parts of the As are the Sextans, 
Quadrans, Triens, Quincunx, Semis, Septunx, Bes, Do- 
drans, Dextans, and Deunx ; equivalent respectively to 2, 3 
&c. Uncice. 



24 Scrupula 


= 


1 Uncia 


= 


1 — oz. 


12 Unciae 


= 


1 As or Libra 


= 


12— oz. 



MONEY. 

195. As money was originally reckoned wholly by weight, 
the denominations of weight (§§ 192-194) were also applied 
to the money system of the Greeks and Romans, and con- 
tinued to be so employed even after changes in the standard. 
The Drachma was the unit in the Grecian currency, the 
Sestertius (Sesterce) in the Roman. In comparing Roman 
with Grecian money, the Denarius (= 4 Sestertii) was 
considered equivalent to the Drachma ; it was really equal 



MONEY. 109 

to f Drachma. As, in antiquity, silver was worth nearly a 
half more in relation to gold than at the present time, the 
value of the gold coins in the following tables is not reck- 
oned from the silver currency, but given absolutely as com- 
pared directly with American gold. 





196. Grecian. 




7 Lepta (Aenrov) 


= 1 Chalcus, XoKkovs, = 


$ 0.004— 


8 Chalci 


= 1 Obol, 'OfioXos, = 


.03+ 


6 Obols 


= 1 Drachma, Apax^tj = 


.18+ 


20 Drachmas 


= 1 Stater, ^Tartjp, = 


[5.33] (§ 195) 


100 Drachmae 


= 1 Mina, Mra, = 


18.00+ 



60 Mina3 = 1 Talent, TdXavrov, = 1080.00+ 

197. The Lepton and Chalcus were copper coins; the 
Obol and Drachma, silver; the Stater (= the Persian 
Dari'c), gold; the Mina and Talent were not coined, but 
were denominations of value. Probably no gold was coined 
in Greece until the time of Alexander, but the Persian 
daric was extensively used. 

Roman. 

198. The money of the Romans was in early times 
wholly copper, the unit being the As. This was nominally 
a pound, but actually somewhat less, in weight, and was 
divided into twelve Uncice. In the 3d cent. B. C. the As 

•was reduced by degrees to one twelfth of its original value. 
At the same time silver coins were introduced ; the Dena- 
rius = 10 Asses, and the Sestertius, or Sesterce (semis 



110 MONEY. 

tertius, represented by IIS, or HS, == duo et semis) = 2£ 
Asses. The Sestertius, being probably introduced at a 
time when it was equal in value to the original As, came to 
be used as the unit (hence nummus was used as equivalent 
to Sestertius) ; afterwards, by the reductions in the standard, 
four Asses became equal to a Sesterce. Gold was intro- 
duced later, the Aureus being equal to one hundred ses- 
terces. — Sestertium (M) =1000 Sestertii was used as an 
expression of value, not as a coin. 

199. -In the statement of sums of money in cipher, a 
line above the number indicated thousands ; lines at the 
sides also, hundred-thousands. Thus HS. DC. = 600 
Sestertii. HS. DC. = 600,000 Sestertii, or 600 Sestertia. 
HS. JDCJ = 60,000,000 Sestertii. With the numeral ad- 
verb, hundred-thousands are also understood; as decies, 
decies HS., or decies sestertium, that is, decies centena 
millia sestertium, or ten times a hundred Sestertia = 
1,000,000 Sestertii. 

200. The following table applies to the last two centuries 
B. C.: — 

4 Asses = 1 Sestertius = $ 0.04-}- 

4 Sestertii = 1 Denarius = -16—}— 

25 Denarii = 1 Aureus = [5.15] (§ 195) 

1000 Sestertii = 1 Sestertium = 40.00-j- 

[Decies Sestertium = $ 40,000.] 



TIME. Ill 

TIME. 

Grecian. 

201. The Greeks computed time by Olympiads of four 
years, following the celebration of the Olympic games 
(§ 112), which began each Olympiad. The celebration of 
the games in B. C. 776 was the first one employed for this 
purpose ; in order, therefore, to reduce Greek dates to years 
before Christ, the number of whole Olympiads past (i. e. the 
date diminished by one) must be multiplied by four, and 
the product subtracted from 71$. This will give the first 
year of the given Olympiad. E. g. the third year of the 
79th Olympiad : 78 X 4 = 312 ; 776 — 312 = 464. 
B. C. 464 being the first year, the third will be 462. This 
is the only method which was universal in Greece ; indi- 
vidual states also reckoned by their magistrates, as the 
Archon in Athens (§ 94), and Ephor (§ 107) in Sparta. 

202. The division into months was very various. The 
Athenian year began at the summer solstice, and was 
divided into twelve months, half of them full, i. e. of 30 
days, half hollow, of 29 clays. Thus in an eweaeTrjpU, or 
cycle of eight years, there would be a loss of ninety days, 
which were inserted as intercalary months in the 3d, 5 th, 
and 8 th years of the cycle. 

203. The Attic months were: — 



1. 'EKaro/M/Satcoj/, 


30 days, 


July; 


2. Merayeiri'tcoi', 


29 " 


August ; 


3. BoqSpo/Aicoi/, 


30 " 


September ; 



4. 


Ilvave-^n&v, 


29 


5. 


MatpaKTeptav, 


30 


6. 


Hoaeidecov, 


29 


7. 


TaflT)\l.<DV, 


30 


8. 


'Avdearepioov, 


29 


9. 


'E\a(f>r](3o\ioiV, 


30 


10. 


Movwxiwv, 


29 


11. 


Qapy-qkujiV, 


30 


12. 


2Kipo(j)opia)V 


29 



112 TIME. 

29 days, October; 

November ; 
December ; 
January ; 
February ; 
March ; 
April ; 
May ; 
June. 

The intercalary month was inserted after no<mSe&>i/, and 
called Poseideon second. 

204. The month was divided into three decades, which 
were called respectively larapeuov prjvos, pecrovvros pyvos, and 
<j)6ivuvros prjvos. The first day of the month was vovprjvla, 
and the following days were named regularly in order, 
Sevrepa, rpiTt], &C. larap'tvov prjvos. The same designation 
was adopted in the second decade, the 11th being called 
npaTT] pecrovvros prjvos, OV eVi deica. The 20th was called 
cUds, and the days of the third decade were reckoned either 
forward from this, or more frequently backward from the 
last day of the month ; as irpaiTrj, hcvrepa, &C. inl elicddi, or 

ipva-nj, 5e<ari/, &c (pOiuovros prjuos ; the last day itself being 
named rpiaKcis, or evrj na\ vea. 

Roman. 

205. Roman Chronology was reckoned from the building 
of the city, the date of which was assigned by Varro to 
B. C. 753. In order, therefore, to reduce Roman dates to 



TIME. 113 

those of the Christian era, the year of the city is to be sub- 
tracted from 754 ; e. g. A. U. C. 708 = B. C. 46. 

206. Until the time of Csesar, that is, until B. C. 46 
inclusive, the Roman year consisted of four months of 31 
days {Mars, which was the first month of the year, Mains, 
Quintllis, afterwards called Julius, and October), seven of 
29 days, and one (Februarius) of 28 days. [The cause of 
this arrangement was the Roman superstition in favor of odd 
numbers.] Every other year an intercalary month (Mer- 
cedonius), of alternately 23 and 22 days, was inserted, the 
former after the 24th of February (Feast of Regifugium, 
§ 173), the latter after the 23d (Feast of Terminalia, § 173 ; 
the Regifugium falling on these years after the. intercalated 
days). The remaining four or five days of February were 
added to the mensis intercalaris, which thus always had 27 
days, February being on these years reduced to 24 or 23 
days. 

207. This complicated and inconvenient system was re- 
formed by Cossar, who abolished the intercalary month, 
added ten days to the year (two each to Januarius, Sextilis 
\_Augustus~\, and December, one each to Aprllis, Junius, Sep- 
tember, and November), and once in four years intercalated a 
day, after the 24th of February (Regifugium), or 6th clay 
before the Kalends of March, hence called bis sextum. This 
is the Julian Calendar, which continued in use until amended 
in modern times by the Gregorian Calendar. 

208. The first day of each month was called Kalendce, 
from ccdare, to call ; that being the day on which the priests 
publicly announced the new moon in the Gomitia Galata 

6 



114 TIME. 

(§ 140), which they did, originally, after actual observation. 
Sixteen days before tins, that is, on the 15th day of March, 
May, July, and October, but the 13th of the other months, 
came the Idus, or day of the full moon ; eight days before the 
Ides were the Nonce. The month was thus divided into three 
weeks of eight days, and one of five or seven. The days . 
were reckoned backward from these points ; but as it was 
the custom of the Romans always to include the point of 
departure in such calculations, it is necessary, in order to 
find the clay of the month, to take this into account. Thus, 
the day before the Kalends, Ides, &c, is called Pridie Ka- 
lendas, &c. ; the day before this, ante diem (a. d.) tertium 
Kalendas, &c. Therefore, with the Kalends, two must be 
added to the number of days of the preceding month ; with 
the Nones and Ides, one must be added to the day of the 
month on which they occur, and the day of the date must be 
taken from the number thus obtained. E. g. the sixth day 
before the Kalends of November: 31 (the number of days 
of October) + 2 = 33 ; 33 — 6 = 27. The date will 
be Oct. 27. — The third day before the Ides of March: 
15 -f 1 = 16; 16 — 3= 13. March 13. 

209. The months of the Roman year were originally 
ten, the sun's course not being taken into account. After- 
wards two were added, January (month of opening) and 
February (of purification), to bring the lunar year into 
agreement with the solar. 

210. The days of the year were divided into, — 1. Dies 
Fasti, 38 in number, when the Praetor might hold his^ court. 
2. Dies Comitiales, 184 in number, when the Comitia might 



WINDS, ETC. 



115 



be held. 3. Dies Ncfasti, when neither courts nor Comitia 
could be held ; these were, for the most part, devoted to 
some religious service, being thus Dies Festi. 4. Dies 
Festi, dedicated to the gods. 5. Dies Rrofesti, appropriated to 
the business of men. 6. Dies Illtercisi, 65 in number, on 
which certain hours were fastus, others nefastus. The same 
term is applied to days which were partially festi. 



211. WINDS. 



N. Septentrio, 'A7rapKTiay. 

N. E. Aquilo, Bopeay. 

N. E. Vulturnus, Kauclas. 

E. Subsolanus, 'AnrjXiuTrjs- 

S. E. Eur us, Evpos. 



S. Auster, NoVos. 

S. W. Africus, An//-. 

W. Favonius, Zecpvpos. 

N.W. Caurus, 'laVvf 

N.W. Circius, Qpa<ias. 



212. ROMAN PR^NOMENS, 



WITH THEIR ABBREVIATIONS. 



A. 


Aulus. 


Mam. 


Mamercus, 


App. 


Appius. 


N. 


Numerius. 


C. 


Caius. 


P. 


Publius. 


Cn. 


Cneius. 


Q. 


Quintus. 


D. 


Decimus. 


Ser. 


Servius. 


K. 


Casso. 


Sex. 


Sextus. 


L. 


Lucius. 


Sp. 


Spurius. 


M. 


Marcus. 


T. 


Titus. 


M\ 


Manius. 


Ti. 


Tiberius. 



GENEALOGIES. 



MYTHOLOGICAL. 
213. 

Acrisius. 

Danae (§ 36). 

Perseus [by Zeus.}. 



Alcieus. Electryon. Sthenelus [m. Nicippe, 

J | | §214.] 

Amphytrion. Alcmene. Eurystheus 

Iphicles. 

Heracles (§ 37) [by Zeus]. 

Iolaus. Hyllus, from whom the Heraclidse were 

[sprung. 

214. 



Tantalus (§ 41). 

, *■ , 

Pelops. Niobe. 



Atreus. Thyestes. Nicippe [m. Sthenelus, § 213]. 



Agamemnon. Menelaus. iEgisthus. Eurystheus. 

Orestes (§44). Eleetra. Iphigenia (§ 43). Hermione [m. Orestes]. 

215. 

^Eacus. 

I 



Peleus ($43). Telamon. 



Achilles ( § 43 ) . Aj ax ( § 43 ) . Teucer. 
Neoptolemus, or Pyrrhus. 



GENEALOGIES. 117 

216. 

Deucalion (§34) [m. Pyrrha]. 



Hellen. Amphictyon. 

J 

Dorus. Xuthus. Aeolus. 



Achaeus. Ion. 

217. 





Dardanus. 






1 

Erichthonius. 

i 






1 
Tros. 

1 




Ilus. 


Assaracus. 


Ganymede (§12), 


Laomedon. 
| 


Capys. 




Priam (§42). 
| 


1 

Anchises. 




Hector, etc. 


Aeneas (§ 43). 


■ 




218. KINGS OF PERSIA. 




Cyrus the Great, B. C. 


559-529. 



Cambyses, B. C. 529. Atossa, in. Darius I. (Hystaspes), B. C. 521. 

Xerxes I., B. C. 485. 

I 
Artaxerxes I. (Longimanus), B. C. 465. 

I 



Xerxes II., B.C. 425. Sogdianus,B.C.425. Darius II.(Nothus), B.C. 
[_ _J423. 

Artaxerxes n. (Mnemon), B. C. 404. Cyrus the Younger. Ostaues. 

Artaxerxes III. (Ochus), B. C. 362. Arsames. 

Arses, B. C. 339. Darius III. (Codomannus), B .C 336. 



1 18 GENEALOGIES- 



GRECIAN. 



219. ALCJMiEONID^E. ' 

Megacles, the opponent of Pisistratus. 



Clisthenes (§ 92). Hippocrates. 

Megacles. Agariste [m. Xanthippus, who command- 

| , ed at Mycale, B. C. 479]. 

Pinomache, m. Clinias, killed B.C. 447. Pericles (§ 92). 

Alcibiades, the general, d. B. C. 404. 



220. 

Cypselus = the same wife = Stesagoras. 
Miltiades (tyrant of the Chersonese). Cimon. 

Stesagoras II. Miltiades (Marathon, B. C.490). 
(Jimon (R. Eurymedon, B. C. 4G6). 



221. SPARTAN KINGS. 

Their common progenitor was Aristodemus, of Heraclid descent, whose two 
sons, Eurysthenes and Procles, were the ancestors of the Agid and Eurypontid 
lines (§ 106). 

AGID.E. EURYPONTIDiE. 

Anaxandrides, B. C. 560. Ariston, B. C 560. 

I 



Cleomenes, Leonipas, B.C. 491. Clcombrotus, Demaratus, 
B. C. 520. (Thermopylae) Regent for Pleistarchus. B. C. 510. 



Pleistarchus, Pausanias, Regent. Leotyciiipes, B.C. 491. 

B. C. 480. (Plata?a, B. C. 479.) (descended from another branch 

| of the line). 



Cleomenes, guard. of Pjleistoanax, B.C. 458. Zeuxidamus. 

his nephew Pausanias. 



Pausanias.. B. C. 408. Archidamds, B. C. 469. 



Agesipolis, Cleombrotus, B. C.380. Agis, Agesilaus,B C 394. 
B. C. 394. (Killed at Leuctra, B. C. 371.) B. C. 429. (Coronea, B. C. 39i.) 

Agesipolis, Cleomenes, Archipamus, 

B. C. 371. B. C 370. B C. 361. 



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